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Firing  the  Kiln 


Courtesy  of  the  Rookwood  Potteries 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DESIGN 

A  TEXTBOOK  OF  PR.ACTICAL  METHODS  FOR  STUDENTS, 

TEACHERS,  AND  CRAFTSMEN 


Bv 


WILLIAM  H.  VARNUM 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  DR.\WING  AND  DESIGN 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


■* .     ' 


J    »      O  V 


»  *   •  J  >  '   -  > 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 

PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright  1916  by 
Scott,  Foresman  and  Company 

33  ROLI-t27 


...  -r       ... 

•     •        •      •      •     _ 


-  .  .     •  » 


,        •>.  •.<".". 


«  . 


...     • . » 


.  •     .         .         • 


.      « 
•     •• 


■  •«      • 


Printed  in  llic  United  Slale.i  of  America 


PREFACE 

Place  for  the  Book.  As  a  textbook,  Industrial  Arts  Design 
is  a  practical  guide  for  designing  in  wood,  clay,  and  l)ase  and  precious 
metals.  It  is  intended  for  individual  student  use  in  the  High  Schools, 
Normal  Schools,  and  Colleges  and  as  a  reference  book  for  elementary 
school  teachers.  Its  more  complex  problems  are  intended  as  definite 
helps  to  the  industrial  arts  designer  or  craftsman.  The  wood  prob- 
lems are  treated  with  special  reference  to  their  adaptability  to  bench 
and  cabinet  work. 

Need  of  the  Book.  It  has  been  written  to  fill  a  decided  demand 
for  a  textbook  that  shall,  without  loss  of  time,  directly  apply  well- 
recognized  principles  of  general  design  to  specific  materials  and 
problems  encountered  in  the  Industrial  Arts.  A  brief  description  of 
the  decorative  processes  adapted  to  the  materials  under  discussion 
with  the  design  principles  directly  applying  to  these  processes,  insures 
designs  that  may  be  worked  out  in  the  studio  or  shop.  It  is  hoped 
that  this  provision  will  eliminate  the  large  number  of  impractical 
designs  that  are  frequently  entirely  unfitted  to  the  technic  of  the  craft. 
This  lack  of  mutual  technical  understanding  between  the  teacher 
of  design  and  the  shop  work  instructor  is  the  cause  of  friction  that  it 
is  hoped  will  be  removed  by  the  methods  advocated  in  these  pages. 

The  Author  s  Motive.  It  has  been  the  intention  to  reduce  unre- 
lated and  abstract  theories  to  a  mininuim  and  reach  directly  rules 
and  conclusions  that  shall  be  applical)le  to  typical  materials  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  schools  and  industries.  The  original  conception 
materialized  in  the  pul)lication  of  a  series  of  articles  upon  Design 
in  the  Itidustrial  Arts  Magazine,  in  191.5.  These  articles  were  fav- 
orably received  and  their  results  in  the  schools  proved  highly  satis- 
factory. Through  this  encouragement,  the  articles  have  been 
re})rinted  in  book  form,  enriched  by  the  addition  of  illustrations, 
review  questions,  and  three  chaj)ters  on  color  with  its  ap])licati()ns. 

Industrial  Arts  Dlskjn  develops  the  princijjles  of  industrial 
design  in  a  new  and  logical  form  which,  it  is  believed,  will  simj)lify 
the  teaching  of  craft  design.  Chapters  I  to  V  deal  with  the  elemen- 
tary problems  confronting  the  designer  as  he  begins  the  first  steps 
on  liis  working  drawing;  Clia])ters  ^M  to  ^TTT  sliow  the  methods  by 
which  he  may  express  his  in(hvi(hiahty  through  contour  or  outline 
eiiricliment,  while  Chapters  JX  to  XVII  ex])lain  tlie  treatment  of 
tiie  most  (hfticult  form  of  decoration,  that  of  surface  enrichment. 

The  Appendix.     'V\\v  a])p('n(lix  is  added  to  show   I  lie  maimer  in 


i 


i<^  l^J^^J 


which  the  rules  may  be  directly  applied  to  a  course  of  study  in  either 
pottery  or  art  metal.  The  present  work  is  not  intended  to  include 
the  chemistry  of  glaze  mixing  or  other  technical  requirements  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  the  appendix;  consequently  the  reader  is 
referred  to  "The  Potter's  Craft"  by  C.  F.  Binns  and  "Pottery"  by 
George  J.  Cox  for  fuller  explanations  of  the  formulae  and  technical- 
ities of  the  craft. 

Source  of  Principles.  The  principles  herein  advocated  are  directly 
related  to  architectural  design  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  standard 
authority  for  the  industrial  arts  designer.  It  w^as  necessary  to 
state  these  princij)les  in  the  form  of  sufficiently  flexible  rules  which 
would  allow  the  student  to  use  his  own  judgment,  but  at  the  same 
time,  restrict  him  to  the  essential  principles  of  good  design. 

Rules.  This  presentation  of  the  principles  of  design  by  means  of 
flexible  rules  in  concrete  form,  serves  to  vitalize  design  by  virtue 
of  their  inmiediate  application  to  the  material.  The  rules  likewise 
save  time  for  both  pupil  and  instructor.  This  is  regarded  as  an 
important  factor,  inasmuch  as  the  amount  of  time  usually  allotted  to 
classroom  teaching  of  design  is  limited. 

While  these  rules  are  applied  to  the  specific  materials,  the  designer 
may  readily  adjust  them  to  other  materials  and  find  them  equally 
applicable.  Direct  copying  of  designs  from  the  illustrations  is  a 
dangerous  expedient  and  is  to  be  discouraged  as  a  form  of  plagiarism 
which  will  eventually  destroy  the  student's  initiative,  originality, 
and  reputation  for  creative  w^ork. 

Results.  From  the  tests  so  far  observed,  it  has  been  seen  that 
under  design  guidance,  the  projects  become  more  noticeably  indi- 
vidual in  character,  lighter  and  better  in  construction,  and  more  fully 
adjusted  to  their  environment.  The  student's  interest  and  initiative 
in  his  work  are  strengthened,  and  he  completes  the  truly  valuable 
cycle  of  the  educative  process  of  evolving  his  own  idea  and  crystal- 
lizing it  in  the  completed  work.  It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  tend 
to  develop  higher  standards  of  good  design  in  schools,  industrial 
establishments,  and  the  home. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  expresses  his  thanks  to  the  following 
for  their  valuable  suggestions  and  assistance  in  contributed  illus- 
trations: Miss  D.  F.  Wilson,  Miss  Edna  Howard,  Miss  Elizabeth 
Upham,  Miss  A.  M.  Anderson,  Mr.  J.  M.  Dorrans,  Mr.  J.  B.  Robinson, 
author  of  "Architectural  Composition,"  and  others  to  whom  reference 
is  made  in  the  text. 

If    /•         jjr-  •  William  Harrison  Varnum. 

M aaison,   Wisconsin. 

April,  J916. 

[4] 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Divisions  of  Industrial  Arts  Design 7 

II.  The  Primary  Mass  and  Its  Proportions      ....  13 

III.  Horizontal  Major  Divisions  of  the  Primary  Mass  19 

IV.  Vertical  Major  Divisions  of  the  Primary  Mass    .  33 

V.  Appendages  and  the  Rules  Governing  Them  ...  43 

VI.     Enrichment    of    the    Contours    or    Outlines    of 

Designs  in  Wood 57 

VII.     Enrichment    of    the    Contours    or    Outlines    of 

Designs   in    Clay 77 

VIII.     Enrichment    of    the    Contours    or    Outlines    of 

Designs  in  Base  and  Precious  Metals 87 

IX.     Surface  Enrichment  of  Small  Primary  Masses  in 

Wood      99 

X.     Surface  Enrichment  of  Small  Priiniary  Masses  in 

Wood.     (Continued) 117 

XL     Surface  Enrichment  with  Minor  Subdivisions  of 

Large  Primary  Masses  in  Wood 133 

XII.     Surface  Enrichment  of  Clay 145 

XIII.  Surface  Enrichment  of  Precious  Metals.     Small 

Flat  Planes 160 

XIV.  Surface  Enrichment  of  Large  Primary  Masses  in 

Base  and  Precious  Metals 179 

XV.     Color:   Hue,  Value,  and  Chroma;  Stains    .    .    .    .194 

XVI.  Color  and  Its  Relation  to  Lndi  strial  Arts 
Design.  Large  Surfaces  of  Wood;  Wall  and 
Ceiling  Areas 201 

X^TI.     Color    and     Its    Relation    to     Ixdi  strl\l     Arts 

Design.     Small  Surfaces  in  Clay  and  Metal  .    .    '■209 

Complete  Summary  of  Rules 218 

Appendix 223 

(a)  A    C()nij)l('l('    Course    of    Study    for    the    A])])lied 

Arts   \u  Tlun  Hase  and   I*i"eciou.s  Metals.    Rela- 
tion of  the  Rules  to  the  Problems 224 

(b)  A    C<)nij)lele    Course    of    Study    for    the    Aj)])lied 

Arts  in   Potlei-y.      !{(>lation  of  the   liides  to  the 
Problems 237 

Lndkx       245 


o 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    DESIGN 


Chapter  I 


DIVISIONS   OF   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   DESIGN 

This  book  has  been  written  with  the  view  of  presenting  design 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  industrial  arts.  An  instructor  generally 
experiences  difficulty  in  finding  the  exact  word  to  use  when  crit- 
icizing a  student's  drawing.  The  student  has  equal  difhculty  in 
understanding  the  criticism.  There  is  little  wonder  that  he  is 
confused,  when  the  rather  ambiguous  terms  "good-looking,"  "ugly," 
"squatty,"  and  "stiff"  are  used  to  express  qualities  that  can  be 
expressed  only  in  terms  of  design. 

The  lack  of  understanding  between  the  pupil  and  the  teacher  may 
be  compared  to  the  attitude  of  the  average  individual  "who  knows 
w^hat  he  likes."  He  is  on  an  equally  insecure  footing  regarding 
industrial  design.  His  reason  for  liking  or  disliking  a  certain  thing 
may  depend  upon  some  whim  or  fancy,  the  poi)ular  fashion  of  the 
times,  or  a  desire  to  possess  a  duplicate  of  something  he  has  seen. 
As  a  consumer  with  purchasing  power,  he  should  have  the  ability 
to  analyze  inteUigcntJy  the  contents  of  catalogs  and  store  windows 
with  the  thought  of  securing  the  best  in  industrial  art  —  something 
that   may  })e  accepted  as  standard  one  hundred  years  from  now. 

It  is,  therefore,  the  intention  to  present  design  of  industrial 
character  in  its  simplest  form,  freed  from  technicalities  or  ambiguous 
statements.  It  is  intended  to  give  the  average  individual  not  par- 
ticularly interested  in  drawing  or  design  a  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
based  upon  principles  that  lune  survived  for  hundreds  of  years  in 
architectural  monuments  and  history. 

It  is  possil)le  llial  the  presentation  of  these  principles  may  enable 
the  instructor  in  the  public  schools  to  guide  his  pupil  away  from  the 
heavy  and  expensive  stereotyped  designs,  and  by  clear  and  simple 
crilicism,  lead  him  to  better  forms  of  construction.     He  may  also  be 

[7J 


Non-technical 
Criticism 


Intelligent 
Analysis 


Results  of 

Clear 

Criticism 


[8] 


Plate  1 


19] 


helped  to  lead  the  pupil  to  design  problems  in  harmony  with  his 
home  surroundings  and  thus  avoid  the  introduction  of  an  inharmo- 
nious element  into  what  may  possibly  be  a  harmonious  setting.  The 
teacher,  pupil,  or  layman  should  use  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  as 
a  basis  for  criticism  or  appreciation  of  the  field  of  the  industrial  arts. 

In  order  to  start  successfully  upon  a  design,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  what  qualities  a  good  industrial  article  should  possess.  Whether 
one  is  designing  a  bird-house,  a  chocola,te  set,  or  a  gold  pendant, 
the  article  must  meet  three  needs:  (1)  It  must  be  of  service  to  the 
community  or  to  the  individual;  (2)  It  must  be  made  of  some 
durable  material;  (3)  It  must  possess  beauty  of  proportion,  outline, 
and  color. 

Ruskin  said  that  a  line  of  beauty  must  also  be  a  line  of  service. 
The  "stream  line  body"  in  automobile  construction  is  the  result  of 
the  automobile  maker's  attempt  to  combine  beauty  with  service. 
This  is  the  attitude  that  should  govern  the  union  of  beauty  and 
service  in  all  of  the  industrial  arts. 

There  are  three  divisions  or  phases  in  the  designing  of  a  struc- 
ture and  its  enrichment.  These  are:  (1)  Structural  Design; 
('■2)  Contour  Enrichment;  (3)  Surface  Enrichment.  Some  objects 
are  carried  through  onh'  one  of  these  divisions,  while  others  are 
developed  through  all  three  of  them. 

Plate  1,  illustrative  of  the  first  division,  deals  naturally  enough 
with  the  planning  of  the  constructive  or  utilitarian  lines  of  an  object 
and  its  parts.  It  nuiy  be  termed  Structural  or  Constructive  Design. 
Questions  of  how  high  or  how  long  an  object  should  be,  to  harmonize 
with  its  width,  the  proper  placing  of  rails,  shelves,  and  brackets, 
I  he  determination  of  the  greatest  and  least  diameter  of  vase  forms 
have  to  be  decided  in  this  i)eriod  of  Proj)ortions  and  S[)ace  R(>lalions. 

The  knowledge  of  tools  and  materials,  and  of  the  manner  in 
wliich  they  may  be  used  for  constructive  purposes,  influences  the 
solution  of  these  questions  and  others  wliich  we  shall  shortly  discuss. 
Strictly  utilitarian  objects  are  seldom  carried  past  this  stage  of 
develoi)ment. 

Plate  2  indicates  the  next  logical  division  —  Contour  Eiu'ichment 
—  or  the  period  of  the  enriclnneiil  ol'  llie  structural  outline  or  con- 
tour.    The   bounding   Vwws,   or  contours,   of   the   structure   may   be 


Requirements 
of  an  Indus- 
trial Problem 


Divisions  in 
Design 
Evolution  and 
Enrichment 


First 

Major 

Division 


Second 

Major 

Division 


[10] 


Plate  2 


[11] 


enriched  in  many  ways,  as,  for  example,  curving  certain  portions 
to  soften  the  severity  of  the  plain  structure.  The  garden  urn  and 
small  stool  have  contours  treated  in  this  manner.  Chippendale, 
Sheraton,  and  Hepplewhite  furniture,  simplified  to  the  accepted 
range  of  shop  technic,  vary  the  straight  lines  of  mission  furniture 
and  come  within  the  possible  developments  of  this  division. 

The  cement  fence  post  at  C,  Plate  2,  is  a  strict  utilitarian  problem 
without  interest.  The  post  at  D,  enriched  by  a  bevel,  has  equal 
utilitarian  and  increased  aesthetic  interest  and  value. 

Plate  3  illustrates  the  last  division  of  evolution  and  concerns 
itself  with  the  application  of  design  to  the  surface  of  the  otherwise 
complete  structure.  This  division  is  commonly  called  applied 
surface  design  or  decorative  design.  It  is  readily  seen  that  this 
division  should  be  considered  after  the  structure  has  been  carefully 
planned.  To  separate  this  division  from  the  period  of  structural 
or  contour  enrichment  we  will  call  it  Surface  Enrichment. 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  a  design  may 
be  carried  through  the  following  steps:  (1)  Blocking  in  the  enclosing 
lines  of  the  design,  as  at  Figure  B,  Plate  2,  adding  to  this  whatever 
may  be  needed  for  structural  purposes,  keeping  the  lines  as  nearly 
vertical  and  horizontal  as  possible;  (2)  Enriching  and  varying  the 
outline  or  contour.  It  is  well  for  elementary  wood  workers  to  use 
this  step  with  extreme  caution,  while  less  reserve  is  necessary  in 
clay  and  metal;  (3)  After  careful  consideration  in  determining  the 
need  of  additional  decoration,  the  last  step,  surface  enrichment, 
should  be  used.  The  following  chapters  will  take  up  these  steps 
in  the  order  stated  above. 

The  ideal  method  of  developing  the  principles  set  forth  in  this 
chapter  includes  correlated  activity  in  the  shop  l)y  working  out 
the  project  in  the  required  material.  As  the  technic  of  the  indi- 
vidual improves,  the  larger  range  of  design  ])rinciples  will  be  found 
to  accompany  and  parallel  his  increasing  skill. 


Effects  of 

Second 

Division 


Third 

Major 

Division 


Steps  in 

Design 

Evolution 


Ideal 

Correlation 


REVIEW   Q[  ESTIONS 

1.  What  three  requirements  shouM  l)c  iiul  in  ;i  well  designed  industrial  article? 

2.  State  three  major  divisions  in  itidiist  riiil  arts  design. 

3.  State  briefly  tlie  i)roI)Iems  to  l)e  considered  in  each  division. 

4.  What  is  llie  hist  and  ideal  ste|)  for  the  designer? 


[12] 


"^^^^^^AJOR    0^^^^'W^S^^^^^^^^W^fS'P^, 


.ROUP  OF  oe.jE-cT5    5Howine  the:  \mEf 

STRUCTURE    ©-i'  "me.  irtTRODUCTlOH  a^' 


.JRFACE  ErtRlCHHEMT- 


..^j   ,  5UKFACt  E-tiRtCHMEHT  CRAFriA^ 


.5c5i?FAce  e.HKtcHHEMT  A\ppue.r 


Plate  3 


Chapter  II 


THE   PRIMARY   MASS   AND   ITS   PROPORTIONS 


Upon  first  observing  a  building,  one  seldom  notices  details  of 
structure.  He  sees  the  large  mass  as  it  is  silhouetted  against  the 
sky.  Nearer  approach  discloses  mouldings,  cornices,  and  doorways; 
while  careful  analytical  study  shows  the  technical  points  of  con- 
struction. The  architect,  in  his  original  planning,  thinks  in  terms 
of  masses,  widths,  and  heights,  disregarding  at  first  the  details  and 
color.  As  architecture  stands  for  parent  design  principles  and  repre- 
sents some  of  the  world's  best  examples  of  composition  and  design, 
industrial  design  should  be  based  upon  the  best  examples  of  archi- 
tectural design.  To  a  certain  degree,  also,  the  methods  of  the 
industrial  arts  designer  should  be  those  of  the  architect. 

It  is  necessarj^  to  think  at  first  of  our  problem  as  a  single  mass 
or  solid,  bounded  by  enclosing  dimensions  of  width,  height,  and 
thickness.  Details  like  a  mirror,  handles,  brackets,  or  knobs  may 
project  outside  of  this  mass,  but  for  the  time  being,  they  ma^^  be 
disregarded.  Figure  B,  Plate  2,  shows  this  manner  of  thinking, 
and  will  enal)le  us  to  regard  the  problem  as  a  big,  simple  mass  so 
I  hat  the  entire  object,  unobstructed  by  small  details,  may  be  seen. 

This  is  the  method  of  ihinking  about  the  problem  which  should 
l)recede  the  drawing.  To  further  describe  this  mass,  which  will  be 
called  the  single  or  Primary  Mass,  it  is  necessary  to  think  of  the 
intended  service  of  (he  project.  A  rather  hazy  idea  of  making  a 
vase  or  a  stool  to  be  j)ut  to  no  particular  use,  may  have  been  the 
original  motive.  Now  tlie  exact  service  should  be  defined  as  it  will 
have  a  marked  (effect  upon  the  sha])e  of  this  ])riniary  mass. 

Rule  la.  A  primarij  ukiss  must  he  ritlicr  vertical  or  horiznufal 
according  /o  flic  intended  service,  unle.s-s  prohitjited  by  technical  require- 
ments. Service  is  an  important  factor  inasnuich  as  it  limits  the 
intended  use  of  tiie  mass.  A  mass  is  horizontal  wIhmi  its  largest 
dimension    is    horizontal.     AVhen    lli(>   horizontal    dimension   of   this 


The 

Architectural 
Method 


The 

Industrial 
Arts  Method 


The  Primary 
Mass 


Service 


i:i 


[1-1 


AMALY3I5  •  OF  •  THE  •   PfSinARV  •  M  A50  ' 


•A  HOP?IZOI^TALPRIM/\S?YKA35' 
— IG  •      t     • 


'A  YE!?TICAL  PRIMAf^V    MASi;  • 


A  VERTICAL.  Pf^lMAPY  MASS • 


•A  H0f?l20MTALPt?lMARV  HAS5' 
FIG,  -   ^ 
"PHE.  MAIW     STRUCTUFSAL. 
LIMBS     DE-TERMIME    THE- 
CHAP2A.CTE.R    Of=  THE- "PRIM- 
ARY MASS-  THESE.  LlHE-S 
AR.E.   IHDICATEID     3Y    DARK 

BAMDS    OR  DirA£M5IOM  UHES 

IH  THE.  luLU3TRATiOMS- 

THREE-  Divisions    OPZ. 

CLA55E5  0F  MATE.RIAL_ 
HAve.  B5-E.M    EHPrtASilLED- 


Plate  4 


[1^ 


mass  is  reduced  until  the  main  vertical  dimension  is  longer  than 
the  main  horizontal  one,  it  becomes  a  vertical  mass.  As  an  example, 
a  davenport  is  generally  a  horizontal  mass  intended  to  hold  a  number 
of  people.  When  the  mass  is  narrowed  to  the  point  where  the  verti- 
cal dimension  exceeds  the  horizontal,  it  becomes  a  chair  for  one 
person.  A  low  bowl  may  be  intended  for  pansies,  but  as  soon  as 
the  service  changes  and  we  design  it  for  goldenrod,  it  becomes  a 
vertical  mass.  The  fable  of  the  fox  who,  upon  being  invited  to  dine 
with  the  stork,  found  the  tall  vases  unfitted  for  his  use  illustrates 
the  change  of  mass  with  the  change  of  service. 

Figures  1  and  4,  Plate  4,  are  examples  of  horizontal  masses  with 
the  dark  lines  indicating  the  dominance  of  the  horizontal  lines  and 
planes.  The  shelter  house  contains  a  long  bench,  making  necessary 
the  long  horizontal  lines  of  the  building.  The  calendar  holder 
has  to  be  a  horizontal  mass  because  of  the  restrictions  imposed  by 
the  shape  of  the  calendar  pad. 

Figures  2  and  3  are  vertical  masses.     The  vase  is  intended  for 
tall  flowers,  while  the  chair,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  must 
meet  the  needs  of  a  single  person.     Utility  and  service  then  have 
been  found  to  give  the  primary  mass  a  given  direction  or  dominance. 

The  designer  now  represents  this  mass  by  drawing  a  rectangle 
similar  to  the  block  outline  of  Figure  B,  Plate  2.  It  is  now  necessary 
to  see  if  the  foundation  stones  of  this  rectangle  have  been  laid  cor- 
rectly; in  other  words,  to  test  the  proportions  of  the  primary  vertical 
or  horizontal  mass. 

Rule  lb.  A  primary  }nas.s  should  have  the  ratio  of  one  to  three, 
three  to  four,  three  to  fire,  five  to  eight,  seven  to  ten,  or  some  similar 
proportion  difficnlt  for  the  eye  to  detect  readily  and  analyze.  Proportions 
are  generally  exj)ressed  in  terms  of  ratios.  A  surface  of  five  by  eight 
inches  would  give  a  ratio  of  five  to  eight;  ten  by  sixteen  feet  is  reduc- 
il)le  lo  ihe  same  ratio.  Certain  ratios  are  monotonous  and  ofiVnd 
the  eye  by  their  lack  of  variety.  Ratios  such  as  one  to  one  or  one  to 
two  are  of  this  class  and  should  be  a\'()i(l(Ml.  If  these  ratios 
could  speak  they  would  resemble  jx'ople  talking  in  a  low  monotonous 
lone  of  voice. 

Certain  ollici-  ratios  arc  weak  and  indet(M'minale,  showing  a 
lack  of  clear  thinking.      'l'li<\\'  are  like  jx'ople  with  no  definite  or  clean- 


Horizontal 
and  Vertical 
Primary 
Masses 


Drawing 
the  Primary 
Mass 


Proportions 
of  the 
Primary 
Masses 


[10 


P1&-  5  • 
EX/XMPUE.    OF      UM  SAT1-5FACTORV    PRO- 
PORTlOH/\TE        RA-TIOS   ■  •  •   •   I  :  4~    '  '   '  3 
AND     '  •  2.     HAVE     BE.eM  OaED   A.S    THE. 
■=./^Si5       OF    THE    PRIMARV     i-lAS^- 


FIG,    •     6     • 
PlXAr-^\PL.E-    OF     £>AXI  5 FACTOf?"^     t=RO- 

SHOW      OEFIMITE.     THIMKIHO     IM  THE 


FIG  •    T    • 
DE-FIHITE    thought    IM     OE-5IGr-l    REQUIf^tS        A 
>CNOvyuE.D&E.  OF   THE.  1_AW5   QF  DESIGN-,    A    fCMQwLEOC-.E 
OF    THE    TECHMICAL   LIMITATIQHS    QF  TOOL5  Ar\0    r-^ATER- 
IAL.5    AMD    THE.  APPLICATION    OF    THESE     FACTS     TO 
A     CONCRETE        NOOE.l_    OR  N/<v/C) R *<  1 IH Ci     DV^A\/Vl^HiT 
OF       THE-      f'R.OJECT--- 


Plate  5 


[17] 


cut  ideas  upon  a  subject  they  discuss.  Examples  in  this  class  show 
ratios  of  two  to  two  and  one-eighth,  or  three  to  three  and  one-fourth, 
neither  positively  square  nor  frankly  rectangular.  They  hide 
around  the  corner,  as  it  were,  waiting  to  be  anything.  Figure  5, 
Plate  5,  is  an  example  of  unsatisfactory  proportionate  ratios  of 
the  primary  mass.  The  blotting  tablet  is  nearly  square,  while  the 
candlestick  and  sconce,  which  should  have  been  designed  with 
strongly  vertical  masses,  lack  the  type  of  definite  thinking  that 
results  in  a  decided  vertical  dimension. 

Disregarding  the  improvement  in  technic.  Figure  6  shows  prob- 
lems designed  with  a  definite  knowledge  of  proportion.  The  metal 
objects  are  refined  in  their  dimensions,  and  pleasing  to  the  eye. 
Tests  have  been  made  with  the  idea  of  determining  what  the  eye 
considers  perfectly  natural  and  agreeable  proportion.  This  has  been 
found  to  be  the  ratio  of  two  to  three.  Consequently,  it  is  clear 
w^hy  Figure  6  shows  objects  more  pleasing  than  those  in  Figure  .5. 

It  may  be  felt  that  too  much  space  is  being  given  to  this  sub- 
ject of  proportion.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the 
industrial  arts  are  intimatelv  associated  with  dailv  life  and  that 
unless  proportions  are  pleasing  to  our  aesthetic  sense,  many  articles 
of  common  use  shortly  become  intolerable. 

This  preliminary  portion  of  the  designer's  task  has  been  given 
to  thinking  out  the  problem  and  drawing  one  rectangle.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  start  the  design  by  pushing  the  pencil  over  the  })a})er 
with  a  forlorn  hope  that  a  design  may  be  evolved  with  little  mental 
effort.  This  should  be  regarded  as  illogical  and  unwortliy  of  the 
desired  end.  A  rectangle  of  the  most  prominent  surface  of  the  j^rob- 
lem,  based  upon  tlu^  desired  service  of  tlie  project,  and  (lie  l)est 
proportions  which  our  knowledge  of  design  and  understanding  of  the 
liniilations  of  construction  will  |)ermit,  should  be  (lie  final  result  of 
the  first  study.  From  now  on  llirougli  the  succeeding  steps,  the 
details  of  the  problem  will  become  more  and  more  clear,  as  the  tech- 
nical limitations  of  I  lie  tools  and  materials  governing  the  designer's 
ideas  and  controlling  and  sliai)ing  the  work  are  belter  understood, 
until  all  governing  factors  become  crystallized  in  the  form  of  a 
working  drawing  or  model.  "^I'his  is  a  strictly  professional  ])ractice 
as  illustrated  in  i^'igure  7,  which  shows  the  skilled  Hookwood  j)()tter 


Unsatisfac- 
tory Ratios 


Preliminary 
Thinking  in 
Terms  of 
Design 


[18] 


developing  a  vase  form,  the  definite  embodiment  of  correct  thinking 
in  terms  of  the  material  which  is  constantly  before  him. 


SUMMARY   OF   RULES 

Rule  la.  A  primary  mass  must  be  either  vertical  or  horizontal  according 
to  the  intended  service,  unless  prohibited  by  technical  requirements. 

Rule  lb.  A  primary  mass  should  have  the  ratio  of  one  to  three,  three  to  four, 
three  to  fire,  fire  to  eight,  seven  to  ten,  or  some  similar  proportion  difficult  for  the 
eye  to  readily  detect  and  analyze. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  architect  first  plan  his  elevations? 

2.  How  should  the  designer  first  think  of  his  problem? 

3.  Define  a  horizontal  primary  mass. 

4.  Define  a  vertical  primary  mass. 

5.  State  some  desirable  ratios  to  be  used  in  designing  the  proportions  of  the 

primary  mass.     E.xplain. 


Chapter  III 

HORIZONTAL   MAJOR   DH ISIONS   OF 
THE   PRIMARY   MASS 

In  the  second  chapter  we  discussed  the  nature  of  the  primary 
mass  in  its  relation  to  the  intended  service  or  duty  it  has  to  perform. 
It  was  found  that  the  demands  of  service  usually  cause  the  primary 
mass  to  be  designed  with  either  a  strong  vertical  or  horizontal  tendency. 

It  now  becomes  imperative  to  carry  the  designing  processes  still 
further  and  divide  the  vertical  or  horizontal  i)rinuiry  mass  into 
parts  or  divisions,  demanded  either  l)y  structural  requirements 
or  because  the  appearance  of  the  object  would  be  materially  improved 
by  their  presence.  This  latter  point  is  sometimes  referred  to  as 
the  aesthetic  requirement  of  the  problem.  There  are  two  simple 
types  of  divisions,  those  crossing  the  primary  mass  horizontally 
and  those  crossing  the  primary  mass  in  a  vertical  direction.  This 
chapter  will  be  limited  to  the  subject  of  horizontal  divisions. 

If  a  city  purchases  a  piece  of  land  for  park  purposes,  presumably 
a  landscape  architect  is  assigned  the  task  of  laying  out  the  paths 
and  drives.  He  does  this  by  crossing  his  plan  at  intervals  with  lines 
to  represent  paths  connecting  important  points.  Under  favorable 
conditions  the  architect  is  free  to  curve  his  path  to  suit  his  ideas. 
He  has  considerable  freedom  in  selecting  his  design  })ut  the  i)aths 
or  roads  must  dip  and  curve  in  sympathy  with  the  contour  of  the 
land  and  in  accord  with  the  aesthetic  requirements. 

While  the  landscaj)e  designer  has  a  broad  latitude  in  his  treatment 
of  land  divisions,  the  industrial  designer  or  architect  is  restricted,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  the  structural  re(juirements  of  the  object  and  by 
his  materials.  He  must  cross  his  spaces  or  areas  by  horizontal 
shelves,  or  rails,  or  l)ands  of  metal  that  hold  the  structure  together. 
As  architecture  is  ol*  fundamental  inij)()rlance  in  industrial  design, 
let  us  see  what  the  architect   lias  in  mind  in   designing  a  structure. 


Divisions 
of  the 
Primary 
Mass 


Nature  and 
Need  of 
Horizontal 
Space 
Divisions 


1!) 


[^20] 


5TEP5    ILUk^TRATIMG       THE.    DEVEL.OPMEMTOF  HORIZOMTAU 
SPACE  niVI^IOM^    FROM    PRIMARY  I^ACiS  TO  THE    STRUCTURE.' 

•   DEMONSTRATION     IM     CLASS   t     CVVOOD') 
PROBLEM  :    A  MUSIC    BENCH     FOR.     TWO   PLAYERS 


eO 
.1 


3'-S' 


RULES  lo     lb 


ESTABLISH  IMG     THE     D1MEM5IOM 
REQUIRED     BY    SERVICE      »E- 
THE     STAMOARO      HEIGHT  • 


ESTABLISHING.  THE  L&NGTH 
OF  THE-  DOr-MMAMT  OR  FRONT 
■5UR»-A.CE-      RATIO    5"  •  S^ 

DESIGHIMG     THE    PRinARY  MAS,S 


R<^)v-e    2b 

1 

ESTABLISHING    THE   HCVRlIOMTAL 
SPACIHC-.5    OF    THE    STRUCTURE- 
SEVERAL    TRIAL  DESlGHS    5HOULr> 
BE    DRAvs/M  • 


E"!5TaBL\SHIHG  THE  COH  - 
STRDCTIVE    ELEMENTS  fSASCO 
(.JPOM    THE    BEST  OF    THE 
PRECEDING     DESKr^N^" 


RATtO     A-S" 


— r-s- 

THE    COMPLETED  W0RK:IN<?;      drawing   •        TO    BE. 
FCILLY    OIMENSIOMED  AND        IF      PRACTICABLE  . 

DRAWN         FUUL     SliE       ON      0<.)PLEX      OR  MANI  LA  PA.PEt^« 


Plate  6 


[^21] 


The  architect  has  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  which  to  start. 
This  gives  him  a  horizontal  hne  as  the  base  of  his  building.  He  con- 
siders it  of  major  importance  in  his  design.  We  find  him  crossing 
the  front  of  his  building  with  horizontal  moulding  or  long  bands 
of  colored  brick,  paralleling  the  base  line  and  otherwise  interestingly 
dividing  the  vertical  face  of  the  front  and  sides.  His  guide  is  the 
bottom  line  of  his  primary  mass  or  the  line  of  the  ground  which  binds 
the  different  parts  of  the  building  into  a  single  unit.  It  can  be  readily 
seen  that  if  he  shifted  the  position  of  his  mouldings  up  or  down 
with  the  freedom  of  the  landscape  architect  in  locating  his  roads, 
he  would  not  be  planning  his  horizontal  divisions  in  sympathy  with 
the  structural  requirements  of  his  primary  mass. 

These  horizontal  divisions  or  lines  have  a  tendency  to  give  appar- 
ent added  length  to  an  object.  Thus  by  their  judicious  use  a  designer 
may  make  a  building  or  room  look  longer  than  it  really  is. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  simpler  objects  with  which  we  may  be 
more  directly  concerned.  The  piano  bench  has  horizontal  lines 
crossing  it,  giving  an  effect  quite  similar  to  that  of  horizontal  mould- 
ings crossing  a  building.  There  may  also  be  ornamental  inlaid 
lines  crossing  the  bench  and  intended  to  beautify  the  design,  but  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  at  present  we  are  considering  the  structural 
divisions  only. 

Plate  6  represents  a  concrete  example  of  the  methods  to  be  used 
in  designing  the  horizontal  divisions  of  a  piano  bench.  The  steps 
may  be  divided  as  follows: 

{a)  The  height  of  a  piano  ])ench  may  be  determined  either 
from  measurement  of  a  similar  bench  or  from  one  of  the  books  on 
furniture  design  now  on  the  market.  The  scale  of  one  inch  or  one 
and  one-half  inches  to  the  foot  may  be  adoi)ted.  Two  horizontal 
lines  should  be  drawn,  one  for  the  bottom  and  one  for  the  top  of 
the  bench.  Tlie  distance  between  these  hues  we  will  arbitrarily 
fix  at  twenty  inches. 

(6)  Many  objects  are  designed  within  rectangles  which  enclose 
iheir  main  or  over-all  projjortions.  AVith  this  in  view,  and  keeping 
in  mind  I  he  width  of  the  bench  necessary  to  the  accommodation  of 
two  players  and  the  recjuirements  of  a  well  j)r()j)ortione(l  i)riinary 
mass  (liulc  lb),  the  lines  are  now  drawn  com])leting  ihe  reclangnlar 


Architectural 

Horizontal 

Divisions 


Designing 
Objects  with 
Horizontal 
Divisions 


[22 


•APPHE.D         AMD       COMSTROCTIVE.    OE.51GM  " 

PRIMCIPLE.   I  :  A-  PROPORT»Ol^i>5   OFTHE.    SIHGLE  PRIMARV  M/VSS  WITH 

DOMiriAMCE.   OF  THE.    HOR»Z.OMTAL.  DIN/1  SIOH  * 
PRIMCIPLE.      2.  A-  RELATTIOH  OF  HORIZONTAL.    SUB- DIVISIOMS    • 
problem:    HORlZ-OriTAL  SPACE- divisions-  CLAS3E-a    iZ-3- 


COLE.    2-<a 


•  DOMIMAMT  5E.CTIOM 
in  EITHER  UPPEI^  OR 
LOWER  PORTIOM  • 


TWO    HOR»ZOriTALDIVl5IOti^ 
PRIMARV  nA55E-0 


1 


R«^Ji_E    2  "b 


DOnJMAMT  vSECTlOH 


THREE  HORIZ-OMTAL  DIV»5IOIi5 

2:3  •  3:s  •  5  :a>   e.TC 


THE.  PRIMARY  r-WK33 


CLAS^      I 

THREE.  HORIZ.OMTAL  OlVJS»On5 


K 


A      HORIZOISTA.L    Di^i.&loM 


THE  PKlt-lARv  nA£.i> 


CLKSS  ECLAX:CLAS03r-lETAL 
Two  HORlZ.OM-r/su  \^»/'islOHS 


DRAW  THREE.   DE.5KF.M5     IM     A     SELECTED  CLA5^     DE5IC-.M5     OF    REC- 
TlLIMtAR      .50L\D5   SHOULD     IMCLUOE.  PROMT  AHD     510E  VJEW5 ' 
COMPAOS       CURv^E.S     ARE.  TO    BE!    AVOIDED    IIM     PROFILES    OF  CUR- 
VILINEAR    FORMS     MS       CLA&5tS       2.-3 
DESIGNS      SHOULD    HAVE.    A    »:>OK\  I H  AH  C  El    OF  THE  HORIZONTAL  PROPORTION 


Plate  7 


[^23] 


boundaries  of  the  primary  mass.  The  Hmitations  of  service  and 
the  restrictions  of  good  designing  give  the  width  of  the  primary 
mass  so  designed  as  three  feet  and  two  inches,  with  a  ratio  of  height 
to  length  of  five  to  eight  and  one-half.  It  is  simpler  to  design  first 
the  most  prominent  face  of  the  object  to  be  followed  by  other  views 
later  in  the  designing  process. 

(c)  By  observing  benches  similar  to  the  one  being  designed  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  horizontal  divisions  will  take  the  form  of  a  rail 
and  a  shelf,  making  two  crossings  of  the  primary  mass  dividing  it  into 
three  horizontal  spaces.  Several  trial  arrangements  of  these  struc- 
tural elements  are  now  made  with  the  thought  of  making  them 
conform  to  the  rule  governing  three  horizontal  spaces.  Rule  2b. 
We  shall  later  discuss  this  rule  and  its  applications  fully. 

(d)  By  selecting  the  best  sketch  of  many  which  the  designer 
will  make  he  has  the  basis  for  the  application  of  Rule  '^b  for  the  struc- 
tural elements.  The  project  now  begins  to  take  on  concrete  form. 
The  top  board  may  project  slightly  beyond  the  primary  mass  without 
materially  aft'ecting  the  value  of  the  designed  proportions. 

(e)  The  last  step  is  the  designing  of  the  side  view  in  relation 
to  the  front  view.  This  enables  the  designer  to  comprehend  the 
project  as  a  whole.  It  is  strongly  urged  that  the  final  or  shop 
drawing  be  of  full  size.  In  more  elaborate  designs  the  finer  propor- 
tions are  lost  in  the  process  of  enlargement  from  a  small  sketch, 
often  hurriedly  executed  in  the  shop.  Again  nuich  time  is  lost  by 
necessary  enlargement,  whereas  a  full  size  curved  detail  may  be 
fjuickly  transferred  to  wood  by  car])on  ])aper  or  by  holes  prick(.Hl  in 
the  paper.  It  is  not  exjxMisive  or  difficult  to  execute  full  size  draw- 
ings; it  is  in  accord  with  shop  practice  and  the  custom  sliould  be 
encouraged  and  followed  on  all  possible  occasions.     See  Figure  lO'-^a. 

Tiie  i)rocess  of  designing  round  objects  is  identical  to  that  just 
descri})ed  as  illustrated  by  [\w  low  round  bowl  in  Plate  7.  It  should 
be  designed  in  a  rectangle  of  accepted  proportions.  Rule  lb.  The 
primary  mass  may  have  excellent  proportions  and  yet  the  vase  or 
bowl    may    remain    devoid    of    interest.     It    may   be   connn()ni)lace. 

As  will  shortly  be  shown,  the  rules  governing  horizontal  divisions 
serve  as  a  check  on  the  comm()nj)lace.  A  horizontal  division  gen- 
erally marks  the  ])oiiil   when'  (lie  outward  swell  of  the  vase  contour 


Designing 
Objects   with 
Horizontal 
Divisions — 

(Continued) 


Value  of  a 
Full  Size 
Drawing 


[24] 


MORIZOMTAL-     SpACL     DlviSlOMS     CF  THE.  PRIMARY  M ASS  IN  WOOD 


_00niNAMT    HORITjOMTAL J 


Fig -8 


Pie-  3 


•A VERTICAL    MA53wn'M      TWO 
H0R120MTAL  SPACE.   DlV15lOMv3  * 


A  H0R»2.0MTAl_    MASS  na/1  TH 
three:   HOR1Z.OMTAL  tSPACE  OlVl^lOrtS 


»  STRUCTUCSAL.    HCEOS  SUPP1-"Y     THE.  HO t^lXOHT/VL,  LIME  S 

FOJe      THI^       TTPE.      OP        3PAveiMet    * 


Fig-  io« 
The  HoreixoMTAu  pr\mar.v  mass  at'a" has 

BEEM  OlviDED  INTO  THREE  EQUAL  AMD     ONE  UH- 
EQUAL    DlVlSlOMS*  8YOM  IXTIHG.    THE.    CEHTt^AL 
DlVl"SlONl,GREATERUNIT>'l5   SECUP2ED   AT-"B*" 


n<3-  »i  • 

A  VERTICAL  nASS  NVITH 

TH^EE  Poorly  spaced  'Divi^- 

10H5  ATA-     CORRECTED 
BV    PRiNClPUE:  ZaAT-'B-' 


Pl.\te  8 


[  25  J 

reaches  its  maxinuim  width.     If  this  widest  point  in  the  primary 

mass  (X-Plate  7)  is  pleasingly  located  between  the  top  and  bottom 

of  a  vase  form  the  contour  will  be  found  satisfactory. 

It  is  possible  to  continue  ad  iniinitum   with  these  illustrations     »    i.-^    ^      i 
,         ,       .  ,  T    •  •  11  .  Architectural 

but  horizontal  space  divisions  are  nearly  always  present  in  some     Precedent  for 

form,  due  to  structural  necessity  or  aesthetic  requirements.    It  is  an     Horizontal 

easy  matter  to  say  that  these  lines  must  divide  the  primary  mass  into     Divisions 

"interesting"    spaces,    well   related   to    each    other,   or  "pleasingly 

located,"  but  the  designer  must  have  some  definite  yet  flexible  rule 

to  govern  his  work.     From  the  analysis  of  many  famous  historic 

buildings  and  well  designed  industrial  projects  it  has  been  found 

that  all  horizontal  masses  may  be  analyzed  as«  dividing  the  primary 

mass  into  either  two  or  ilirce  divisions  or  spaces,  regardless  of  the 

complexity  of  the  project. 


Analysis  of  Horizontal  Space  Divisions 

Rule  2a.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  two  liorizontal  divi- 
sions, the  dominance  should  he  either  in  the  upper  or  the  lower  section. 
Plate  7  shows  this  division  of  the  primary  mass  —  the  simplest 
division  of  th^  space.  A  space  divided  just  half  way  from  top  to 
bottom  would  be  monotonous  and  expressive  of  the  ratio  of  one 
to  one.  This  arrangement  as  we  have  already  discovered  in  the 
second  chapter  is  not  conducive  to  good  design. 

By  the  stated  rule,  2a,  the  varied  adjustment  of  this  doul)le 
liorizontal  division  aftords  all  ])()ssi})le  latitude  for  constructive 
purposes.  It  is  better  to  place  the  division  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  upper  division  (or  l()W(^r)  will  not  ai)j)ear  i)inched  or  dwarfed 
1)y  comparison  with  the  remaining  area.  Thus  a  ratio  of  one  to 
tliree,  or  three  to  five,  or  five  to  eight  is  better  than  a  ratio  of  one  to 
one  or  one  to  eighteen,  })ut  there  is  no  exact  or  arbitrary  ruling 
on  this  point. 

Figure  S  iihist rates  two  horizontal  divisions  in  wood  construction 
and  also  the  freedom  of  choice  as  to  exact  proportions.  The  eye 
will  be  found  a  good  judge  of  I  he  proper  spacings  sul)ject  to  the 
limitations    alreadx'    mentioned. 

It  is  best  to  keep  the  design  williin  llu-  limits  of  two  liorizontal 


Two 

Horizontal 

Space 

Divisions 


Two 

Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Wood 


[26] 


HORIZONTAL  5PACE  DIV1510IS3  OF  THE.  PRIMARV  MASS  IM  CLAY 


ne-    12- 


ANA/ALL      SURFACE    DIVIDED    INTO   TWO  HORIZOMTAL  DIV15IOMO  •  THE  HOOO 
OF    THE    FIRE   PLACE    APiD   THEL  DOOR.    ECHO    I3"Y    5IM\LAPS  FR0P0RT10M5 
THIS  D1V\510H  •  UMITY  THUS  SECUI2ED   ISVACJIEID    e."V    THE.  THf^E-E.  DlVl^lOM   -SPAC- 
ING OF  THE.  PAHE-ULINS  • 


POTTE.RV  F052M  e>    SHOULD  AT  F\R5T  BE 
UMlTEDTQTWO  HOl^lZQMTAl.  DIVISION.* 


WIOEST   PART    OP  VASE. 

T 

MOTE  THE   TRAMS 
LATIOM  OF  TWO 
HORlZOHTAL  niV 
I510M5     FROM 
STRAIGHT   LINE 


F\&  •    15 


POIMT  OF    6REATE3TW10TH 


WELL  PROC?OR,T10MEr>  ^l&-\4--  R  &   •        IS' 

SPACE.  Dl-vis-iOMS  A^E.    AV'PLICABLE 

TO  AKV    MAXH^IAU-  H0T2.V2.OM-rAl_     DlV»^>OM-5     IMVAvSE.     FORMS 
MARPT    THE.    POIKX   OF    (SR-EATTEST   O^     LEAST vVlOT-H  •     THe 
HOT^IZOMTAL  DIVISION      OF     FlCri -J^--  HOW    BECOr^ES  THE Vv'lDE-ST  "POINT 
OF    P-IG-    14-- 


Plate  9 


[27] 


space  divisions  in  designing  cylindrical  clay  forms,  particularly 
in  the  elementary  exercises.  Enough  variety  will  be  found  to  make 
pleasing  arrangements,  and  the  technical  results  obtained  by  two 
divisions  are  much  better  than  those  obtained  from  a  greater  number 
of  divisions. 

Figures  14,  15,  and  16,  Plate  9,  are  clay  forms  with  the  dominance 
placed  in  either  the  upper  or  lower  portion  of  the  primary  mass. 
Figure  13  has  been  used  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  horizontal  space 
division  principles  are  applicable  to  any  material.  The  horizontal 
divisions  in  Figure  13  are  due  to  structural  needs.  A  horizontal 
line  carries  this  division  across  to  Figure  14,  a  clay  vase.  The 
horizontal  division  line  now  becomes  the  one  which  marks  the 
widest  part  of  the  vase.  It  gives  the  same  relation  between  the 
top  and  bottom  horizontal  spaces  as  in  Figure  13.  It  marks  an 
aesthetic  point  in  the  design  of  the  vase,  or  a  variation  of  the  contour, 
introduced  by  reason  of  its  effect  upon  the  beauty  of  the  vase,  not 
called  for  by  the  needs  of  actual  service. 

A  musical  composition  is  often  played  in  an  orchestra  first  by 
the  wood  instruments,  taken  up  and  repeated  by  the  brasses,  then  by 
the  strings,  and  finally  played  as  an  harmonious  whole  by  the  entire 
orchestra.  There  is  a  close  parallel  in  Figure  12,  an  adaptation  of 
one  of  Gustav  Stickley's  designs.  The  two-division  rule  is  used 
in  the  relations  of  the  plaster  and  wainscoting;  again  in  the  plaster 
over,  and  the  cement  or  tile  around  the  fireplace.  It  is  repeated  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  copper  and  cement  of  the  fireplace  facing 
and  hood  and  in  the  door  panels.  By  repeating  again  and  again 
similar  space  divisions  the  wall  space  becomes  a  unified  and  harmoni- 
ous whole.  Varietv  is  secured  bv  the  introduction  of  three  horizontal 
divisions  in  the  details  of  the  wainscoting.  This  method  of  repeating 
similar  space  divisions  is  called  "echoing"  and  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  means  known  for  securing  the  effect  of  imity. 

The  horizontal  subdivisions  in  metal  are  usuallv  made  for  service. 
Figures  17,  IS,  and  11).  Plate  10,  are  exami)les  of  sucli  divisions.  Tlie 
location  of  the  clock  face  in  Figure  IS  calls  for  the  j)lacing  of  its 
horizontal  axis  in  accordance  with  Kiile  2a.  The  lanij)  in  Figure 
19  shows  an  instance  wiicre  I  he  entire  design  once  divided  by  Rule  2a, 
may   be  again   sul)(li\i(l('(l    into   a   similar  series   of  divisions.      This 


Two 

Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Clay 


Two 

Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Metal 


[28 


HORIZONTAL  5PACE  DIV1510I15  IM  M^JAL* 


THE  5H^DE  15  KM  ADDITIOnAL 
MASS  BUT  IS  IliCLUDEOUMOER 
THE  RULE.- 


r 
% 

Q 


r 


ne- 1-8- 


FlC'-Zl- 


EXAMPL£-5     OF   THE.    L^CK. 
OF  V/\R1ET>   (M     TIORlZjOri- 

T/\L    S>UBOlVl5lQriS  • 

CLA55    3 


,,„,^ou.«-^-2'^''i 


ric-.-23 


_jil^S5!^T\ 


ConnoMPUvde.  Jp 
CURVE    1—7 

y 


FlC-t  •  Z.4-- 
MO  VARIETY  IM  WIDTH.'*  OF  TOP  AMD  5onoM 


Plate  10 


[29 


arrangement  is  quite  similar  to  the  system  of  repetitions  seen  in 
Figure  VI  and  termed  "echoing"  the  original  divisions. 

Rule  2b.  //  the  "primary  mass  is  divided  into  three  horizontal 
divisions  or  sections,  the  dominance  should  be  placed  in  the  center 
section  ivith  varying  icidths  in  the  upper  and  lower  thirds. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  divide  the  primary  mass  into  more 
than  two  sections  the  designer's  problem  becomes  more  difficult. 
With  the  addition  of  a  greater  number  of  horizontal  divisions  there 
is  a  manifest  tendency  for  the  design  to  become  cut  up  into  so  many 
small  sections  that  the  simplicity  of  the  whole  mass  is  lost.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  that  principle  which  we  call  nnity  or  the  quality  of  "holding- 
together"  is  necessary  and  should  be  the  constant  test  of  the  design. 
The  instant  any  part  of  the  design  seems  to  fly  apart  from  the  main 
mass  it  becomes  the  designer's  duty  to  simplify  the  design  or  pull  the 
parts  together  and  thus  restore  the  lost  unity. 

As  a  restriction  against  loss  of  unity  it  is  necessary  to  group  all 
of  the  minor  horizontal  divisions  into  a  svstem  of  two  or  three  large 
horizontal  divisions.  Referring  to  Rule  2b,  it  is  seen  that  when  three 
divisions  are  used,  it  becomes  the  practice  to  accentuate  the  center 
section  bj^  making  it  larger.  This  arrangement  is  designed  to  give 
weight  to  the  center  portion  and  by  this  big  stable  division  to  hold 
the  other  subdivisions  together  and  in  unitv. 

Two  horizontal  masses  and  one  vertical  mass  shown  in  Figures 
1),  10,  and  11,  Plate  8,  illustrate  the  application  of  this  three-division 
rule  to  wood  construction.  It  is  seen  that  the  construction  of  rails, 
doors,  and  shelves  is  responsible  for  the  fixing  of  all  of  these  divisions. 
It  may  also  be  seen  that  three  divisions  are  applicable  to  either  the 
vertical  or  the  horizontal  primary  mass.  Figure  10  illustrates  the 
\'i()lati()ii  of  this  type  of  spacing  at  the  ])()int  .1,  where  I  he  shelves 
are  no  more  pleasingly  arranged  than  I  he  rounds  of  a  ladder.  Later 
on  we  shall  be  able  to  rearrange  these  shelves  in  a  pleasing  manner 
but  at  presenl  it  is  belter  to  relieve  the  monotony  by  omitting  the 
center  shelf.  This  aj)plies  the  three  division  rule  to  the  satisfactory 
aj)])earance  of  the  desk  at  B. 

Similar  monotony  in  sj)acing  is  seen  in  the  screen.  Figure  11. 
The  correction  in  />  appeals  at  once  as  a  far  more  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment than  that  secured  by  placing  the  cross  bar  half  way  up  as  in  A. 


Three 
Horizontal 
Space 
Divisions 


Three 
Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Wood 


[30] 


Three 
Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Clay 


Three 
Horizontal 
Divisions 
in  Metal 


Freehand 

Curves 


There  are  no  infallible  rules  for  this  readjustment  beyond  those 
already  stated.  The  eye  must  in  part  be  depended  upon  to  guide 
the  artistic  sense  aright. 

It  is  suggested  that  it  is  desirable  to  keep  clay  forms  within  the 
limitations  of  two  divisions.  Rectangular  posts,  pedestals,  and 
other  vertical  forms  in  cement  may  be  developed  by  the  application 
of  Rule  2a  or  2b,  if  care  is  taken  to  group  all  minor  divisions  well 
within  the  limitations  of  these  rules. 

The  statement  just  made  in  reference  to  simplified  groupings  is 
illustrated  in  the  candlestick  and  cup  in  Figures  20  and  21,  Plate  10. 
The  construction  based  upon  the  three  functions  performed  by  the 
cup,  the  handle,  and  the  base,  suggests  the  use  of  these  hori- 
zontal divisions.  The  minor  curves  have  been  subordinated  to, 
and  kept  within,  these  three  divisions.  The  final  result  gives  a 
distinct  feeling  of  unity  impossible  under  a  more  complex  grouping. 
The  Greek  column  will  afl^ord  an  architectural  illustration  of  a  similar 
grouping  system. 

The  lathe  bed  of  Figure  22  shows  one  of  innumerable  examples 
of  space  violations  in  the  industrial  arts.  A  slight  lowering  of 
the  cross  brace  would  add  materially  to  the  appearance  and  strength 
of  the  casting.  Figure  23  is  a  copper  box  with  the  following  more  or 
less  common  faults  of  design:  commonplace  ratio  of  length  and 
width  (2  :  1)  partially  counteracted,  however,  by  a  more  pleasing 
ratio  of  the  vertical  dimension,  ecjual  spacing  in  the  width  of  cover 
of  box  and  box  body,  and  equal  spacing  of  the  hinges  of  the  box 
from  the  ends  of  the  box  and  from  each  other.  By  appljang  the 
two  and  three  horizontal  division  rules  these  errors  may  be 
avoided. 

Figure  24  shows  a  low  bowl  with  a  compass  curve  used  in  designing 
the  contour.  This  has  brought  the  widest  part  of  the  design  in  the 
exact  center  of  the  bowl  which  makes  it  commonplace.  In  addition 
to  this  the  top  and  bottom  are  of  the  same  width,  lacking  variety 
in  this  respect.  Correction  is  readily  made  by  applying  a  freehand 
curve  to  the  contour,  raising  or  lowering  the  widest  point  (F),  at 
the  same  time  designing  the  bottom  either  larger  or  smaller  than 
the  top. 


[31 


INSTRUCTION   SHEET 


Plate  7  is  a  sheet  suggestive  of  the  application  of  Rules  la,  lb,  2a,  and  2b, 
with  an  indication  of  the  type  of  problem  to  be  required.  The  steps  of  the 
designing  processes  in  either  wood  (class  1),  clay  (class  -Z),  or  metal  (class  3), 
are  summarized  as  follows: 


SUMMARY   OF    DESIGN   STEPS 


> 


(a)   Construction  of  the  rectangle  representing  the  vertical  or  horizontal  char-       V 
acter  of  the  primary  mass  with  desirable  proportions.     It  is  better  to 
select  a  typical  view  (Plate  6,  D),  preferably  a  front  elevation. 

(6)  Subdivide  this  rectangle  into  two  or  three  structural  sections;  horizontal 
in  character.  Make  two  or  three  trial  freehand  sketches  for  varied 
proportions  and  select  the  most  pleasing  one  in  accordance  with  Rules  la, 
lb,  2a,  and  2b. 

(c)  Translate  the  selected  sketch  to  a  full  size  mechanical  drawing  or  at  least 
to  a  reasonably  large  scale  drawing.  The  structural  elements:  i.e.,  legs, 
rails,  posts,  etc.,  should  be  added  and  other  additional  views  made. 

(f/)   Dimension  and  otherwise  prepare  the  drawing  for  shop  jjurposes.  ^ 

(e)    Construct  the  project.  ^ 


SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design  a  nasturtium  bowl,  applying  Rules  la,  lb,  2a. 

Design  a  writing  table  2  feet  0  inches  high  with  three  horizontal  divisions. 


SUMMARY    OF   RULES 

Rule  2a.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  info  two  horizontal  divisions,  the 
dominance  should  be  either  in  the  upper  or  the  loirer  section. 

Rule  2b.  //  //((■  priinary  mass  is  divided  into  three  horizontal  divisions  or 
sections,  the  dominance  should  be  placed  in  the  center  section  with  varying  widths 
in  the  upper  and  loirer  thirds. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  State  two  methtxis  of  siibiiixiiiiiif^f  I  lie  ])rim;iry  mass. 

2.  Define  the  iiutmc  .ind  need  of  liori/.oiilal  s|)ac('  divisions. 

.'5.   Give  five  steps  to  be  used  in  designing  a  foot  stool  or  piano  bench. 

4.  What  i)oint  constitutes  a  horizontal  division  in  the  contour  of  a  simjile  clay 

bowl.^ 

5.  State  tlie  rule  governing  two  horizontal  sijjicc  divisions  and   fiirnisli   illus- 

trations in  wood,  clay,  and  metal. 

(>.  (iivc  the  rule  governing  thrci-  liorizoiital  space  <iivisioiis  aiul  sii])i)ly  illus- 
trations in  wood,  clay,  ami   iintal. 

7.  Shilc  five  steps  in  tin-  designing  of  ;i  projcil  in  Ihc  indiisl  ri:il  arts  mvoUing 
tlic  nsc  of  liori/.oiil  :il   siruclural  di\isions. 


[32] 


•   APP>1_\ED   AMD    COMSTRUOXI VE.      DE-OICEiM   • 
PRIMCIPLE3:  VERTICAL  SPACE.   DIVI5»Ort,S  OF  THE.  SItiGLEL    HORV    PRlf'VVRV  rn/^SS- 
PROSLE.r-l :  VEJ^TICAL  5UB  DIVOIOM5     US     CLASSES     I  •  Z  •   3-THET  ARE.U^E.DTO 

SRE/^K.  OR  VAE^    LAfeGE  AREAS    Of=  HORIZOMTAU  OR  VCeTlCAL  r^AC)3E^« 


TWO  DIV16I0M5- V- 


DOMlMAnT — 

B 

.nQmiMAnTJ,              ,j 

THREE.   DIVI5IOM<5 


H 


EMRlCHE-D-  V- 


"nc 


-c 


< 

Z 

f 

c 
c 


/ 


vsroor> 


OQl^ir-'A.rsT 


'\ 


CLAS3   »V 

OME. 


CL/KSS  5  -    V- 
TWo 


CL.AS3     I 
■THRE.E. 


H 


1 

r 

T 

' 

1 

•CLAS:^     2.-  Cl_A>C 


CLASS    3   •  METAU 


OI^AW  THREE    DESlCn^    IM     OHE     OF    THE.    OESIGMATED     CLA5  3E.S  • 
OE31GMS       SHOULD    HAVE      A         0»>!iTlMCT      OomiNAMCE     OF     EITHE-R 
V  OR   H        AtHO     IISCLDOE.        I      2.     AH0  3    vet?TICAL_   OlVlSIOlHO   - 

THIS     5HE£-T   i  b      INTEHOED    TO    SHOW     THE      TTPE    OI=    PROBLEM       IK 
THREE  MM-ERlALS    AS     A    C^AUGE.     F^OR      POSSIBLE      CUASS    ASSIGMMEMTS- 


Plate  11 


Chapter  IV 

VERTICAL   MAJOR   DIVISIONS   OF 
THE   PRIMARY   MASS 


The  design  of  the  primary  mass  has  now  been  considered  under 
Rules  la  and  lb,  and  its  horizontal  divisions  under  Rules  2a 
and  "^b.  The  next  logical  step  is  the  consideration  of  the  nature  of 
the  lines  that  cross  the  primary  mass  in  a  vertical  direction.  In  the 
original  planning  of  the  primary  mass  it  was  found  that  the  hori- 
zontal bounding  lines  and  the  horizontal  divisions  were  parallel  to 
the  base  line  of  an  object  and  that  the  base  line  was  necessary  to 
ensure  stability.  Vertical  lines  are  necessary  and  equally  import- 
ant to  give  the  needed  vertical  support  to  an  object. 

So  accustomed  is  the  eye  to  vertical  lines  in  tree  trunks,  tall 
buildings,  and  thousands  of  other  examples  that  the  upward  eye 
movement  in  viewing  an  object,  having  a  predominance  of  vertical 
elements,  seemingly  adds  to  its  height. 

The  designer  thus  has  a  most  useful  device  with  which  to  increase 
the  apparent  height  of  an  o})ject  that,  for  structural  or  other  reasons, 
must  in  reality  not  have  great  height.  Chapter  III  drew  attention 
to  the  influence  of  horizontal  lines  on  a  project.  Vertical  lines  on  an 
object  are  found  to  produce  an  analogous  eft'ect  vertically. 

Gothic  cathedral  builders  used  the  vertical  line,  repeated  again 
and  again  in  bullresses,  j)innacles,  and  spires  to  give  great  aj)])arent 
height  to  a  l)uilding  and  to  make  il  a  unified  vertical  mass  of  great 
l)eauty.  The  modcn  church  sj)ire,  together  with  the  long,  vertical 
interior  columns,  similarly  affects  our  j)resent  day  church  edifices. 

Tliis  idea  of  rej)eating  the  vertical  bounding  lines  of  the  primary 
mass  by  cutting  the  mass  into  vertical  spaces  is  also  useful  in  breaking 
up  or  destroying  the  monotony  of  large  unl)r()k(Mi  surfaces.  Pilasters 
may  cut  I  lie  front  of  a  bnilding  into  interesting  spaces;  j)iers  may 
break  np  the  regularity  of  a  long  fence;   legs  and  panels  may,  each 

[  :5.'5 1 


Nature 
and  Need  of 
Vertical 
Space 
Division 


Arcliitectural 

Precedent 

for 

Vertical 

Divisions 


[34] 


Examples  of  verticaj-  5pace  divisions 

IM     CLASS    I        CWOOD)  •   THE  DiVlSlOms 

OF    THIS     CLA53     ARE    C-EHERALLY  BASED 

UPOM    THE.    STRUCTURAL  REQUlREriEriTS  • 


0^L 
Fig  -as  •    i 

\^rvJO  EaoAL.      ..  VERTICAL  On^lSIW^ 


A  VARIATION    OF     "PWO  VERTICAL    DlV- 
ISIOHS  •  DorllMAMCE  OF  LEFT  SECTlOM 

THREE   VERTICAL 


Plate  12 


[35] 


for  the  same  purpose,  cross  a  cabinet.  While  some  of  these  may  be 
structurally  necessary  and  some  not,  they  are  all  witnesses  to  the 
desire  to  produce  beauty  in  design.  As  these  examples  are  so 
numerous  in  the  industrial  arts,  it  is  well  to  stud}"  in  detail  their 
proper  adaptation  to  our  needs. 

Upon  analyzing  one  yertical  space  diyision,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
primary  mass,  yertical  in  character  and  goyerned  by  Rule  la.  Figure 
25,  Plate  Vl,  illustrates  one  vertical  diyision.  The  foot  is  an 
appendage  to  be  considered  in  Chapter  V. 

Rule  3a.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  two  vertical  divisions, 
the  divisiojis  shonid  be  equal  in  area  and  similar  in  form.  Exception 
may  be  made  in  case  of  structural  requirements.  By  imagining 
two  adjacent  doors  of  equal  size,  the  design  effect  of  two  vertical 
divisions  may  be  made  clear.  Plate  11  illustrates  a  rectangle  (A) 
divided  in  this  manner,  preliminary  to  the  development  of  a  prob- 
lem. Figure  27,  Plate  12,  represents  the  type  of  object  to  which 
the  exception  to  the  rule  may  be  applied.  In  the  design  of  this 
desk,  the  structure  practically  prohibits  two  equal  vertical  divisions, 
necessitating  an  unequal  division  in  the  section  occupied  by  the 
drawers. 

In  Plate  12,  Figure  26,  the  designer  had  his  vertical  spacings 
dictated  by  service  in  the  form  of  two  doors.  As  service  demands  a 
tall  vertical  primary  mass,  it  is  but  natural  to  design  the  doors  to 
conform  with  the  j)rimary  mass.  This  gives  a  monotonously  long- 
space  for  I  lie  glass  panels  and  suggests  structural  weakness.  To 
relieve  this  the  designer  apj)lied  Rule  2a  and  crossed  the  vertical 
I)anels  by  horizontal  subdivisions,  relieving  the  monotony  and  still 
retaining  the  unity  of  the  primary  mass. 

In  Figure  27  his  problem  was  a  variation  of  that  presented  in 
Figure  2().  Structunil  limilalions  called  for  unequal  divisions  of  the 
vertical  sj)ace  arrangemciil .  I'lic  Icl'l  j)()rli()n  of  the  desk  becomes 
dominant  as  demanded  l)v  service.  The  drawer  oi-  brace  is  necessarv 
in  this  design  as  it  acts  as  a  sort  of  link,  l)inding  the  two  vertical 
legs  together.  "Fhe  omission  of  the  drawer  would  destroy  the  unity 
of  the  mass. 

As  vertical  space  divisions  are  princi])ally  a])plicable  to  rectilinear 
or  flat  objects  and   niorcoxcr  as  it    is  in  such   forms  only  that    they 


One 
Vertical 
Space 
Division 


Two 
Vertical 
Space 
Divisions 


Two 
Vertical 
Divisions 
in  Wood 


[36] 


Tie  •  S.9 


•NOTE.    THE.  [^E.P>E.TlTlOr^    OF 
THREE.    -N/-     iP/KCE.    OlVlSIO^-lS 
IM    C)lFFE.t^EHT^nATE.RlAUt>  AT  :x: 


J, DOMits/\MX 

~  SECTIOM    ■ 


rie  -30 


EXAMPLE.^        OP    VEenCAL.    <5PACE.   DIVI51OMS 
IM    CLASis       Z-  CLAY     AMO        CE-MEnT- 


Plate  13 


[37] 


have  structural  value,  they  are  not  commonly  met  in  cylindrical 
pottery  ware.  Vertical  divisions  are,  however,  occasionally  used  in 
architectural  tiles  and  other  flat  wall  objects.  As  three  divisions 
are  much  more  commonly  used  in  clay  and  cement,  this  material 
will  now  be  left  for  later  consideration  in  this  chapter. 

Vertical  spacings  in  metal  are  quite  similar  to  space  divisions  in 
wood.  Wrought  iron  fences  are,  by  reason  of  structural  limitations 
composed  of  vertical  and  horizontal  lines,  varied  by  the  introduction 
of  piers  and  curved  members.  As  they  are  typical  of  a  certain 
branch  of  iron  construction,  two  designs  of  the  Anchor  Post  Iron 
Company  have  been  introduced.  Figure  3'-2,  Plate  14,  represents 
two  equal  vertical  divisions  made  so  because  of  structural  and 
aesthetic  demands.  The  piers  in  this  instance  form  a  part  of  the 
general  design  of  the  entire  gate  and  must  be  considered  accordingly. 

The  vertical  subdivision  in  Figure  32,  Plate  14,  has  been  repeated 
or  echoed  by  the  long  vertical  bars,  alternating  with  the  shorter  ones 
and  producing  pleasing  variety.  The  horizontal  divisions  are 
designed  according  to  Rule  '-21).  In  designing  the  newel  lantern  in 
Figure  34  the  designer  was  required  to  form  a  vertical  primary 
mass  to  conform  with  the  similar  mass  of  the  post.  This  he  deter- 
mined to  subdivide  vertically  in  practically  the  same  manner  as 
the  cabinet  in  Hgure  20.  Threatened  with  the  same  monotony  he 
met  the  situation  by  subdividing  the  vertical  sections  into  three 
horizontal  divisions  in  accordance  with  Rule  '^b.  The  structural 
suj)ports,  however,  rising  up  in  the  center  of  this  mass,  destroy 
its  unitv.  Thev  would  have  carried  out  the  lines  of  the  structure 
of  tlie  newel  post  and  conlinued  I  he  lines  of  the  Innlern  better,  if 
lliey  had  ])een  attached  lo  the  corners  rather  than  lo  the  sides  of 
the  newel  i)()st. 

l^iilc  3b.  Ij  the  primary  mass  is  divided  info  three  rerfieal  divisions, 
the  eenter  division  should  l)e  the  larger,  irifh  the  remaining  divisions 
oj  equal  size.  A  large  l)uildiiig  with  a  wing  on  either  side  will  give 
JIM  idea  of  this  form  of  spacing.  '^Flie  size  of  the  m;iiii  building  holds 
tlic  wings  to  it,  t  lius  ])reserving  llic  iiiiilyof  1  lie  si  i-ucture,  while  e(|ual 
divisions  on  cillicr  side  give  balance,  Plate  1  1  (/>)  gives  an  example 
of  a  rectangle  divided  in  lliis  manner.  "^I'his  threes-division  motive 
is  a  very  old  one.      In   the  middle  ages  |)aiiilei-s  and  designers  used 


Two 
Vertical 
Divisions 
in  Clay 


Vertical 
Divisions 
in  Metal 


Three 
Vertical 
Space 
Divisions 


.:u. 


[  '38  ] 


...u. 


■^/.  ^1 


m 


t 


'S^ 


m 


P 


j:y 


Rg.  •  3Z 


FIG  -33 


Fig.  •  35 


riG  •  36 


EXAMPLE-5         OF         TWO      AMD   THREE.      VERTICAL 
SUBDIVlSIOli^  lli        CLASa     3       (HElTAl-)--- 


Plate  14 


[39 


three  divisions  or  a  triptych,  as  it  is  called,  in  their  altar  decorations. 
A  painting  of  the  Virgin  was  usually  placed  in  the  center  division 
with  a  saint  in  each  of  the  remaining  panels  to  the  right  and  left. 
Designers  and  mural  decorators  have  been  using  the  triptych  ever 
since  that  period. 

The  desk  in  Figure  28,  Plate  12,  is  a  good  example  of  the  three- 
vertical  space  rule.  The  drawer  in  the  center  forms  the  mid  or 
dominant  section  and  by  its  greater  length  holds  the  two  smaller 
sections  together.  This  design  is  better  than  Figure  27,  which  has  a 
similar  mass.  The  prominent  vertical  lines  in  Figure  27  counteract 
and  destroy  the  effect  of  the  long  horizontal  dominant  lines  of  the 
table  top,  whereas  in  Figure  28,  the  vertical  lines  in  the  center  of  the 
design  are  so  short  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  horizontal 
lines  of  the  table  top.  Figure  28  supports  the  horizontal  tendency 
of  the  primary  mass  while  Figure  27  neutralizes  or  practically 
destroys  its  character. 

Figure  30,  Plate  13,  represents  an  overmantle  by  the  Rookwood 
Potteries.  It  is  typical  of  a  class  of  overmantles  which  may  be  devel- 
oped in  tiles  or  in  cement,  forming  an  agreeable  contrast  with  the 
brick  of  a  large  fireplace.  The  three  divisions  or  triptych  should  be 
proportionately  related  to  the  opening  of  the  fireplace  and  to  the 
enclosing  mass  of  brick  or  wood  work.  We  will  consider  Figure  29 
to  show  how  this  may  be  carried  out. 

Figure  29  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  Figure  12,  Plate  9,  and 
is  an  elaboration  of  a  simple  three-division  theme  of  spacing.  The 
design  seems  to  be  complex  until  it  is  analyzed  into  two  rules.  The 
primary  mass  of  the  entire  fireplace  motive  (including  the  surround- 
ing panelling)  has  first  been  ])lanned  witli  strong  and  prominent 
horizontal  lines.  This  was  then  divided  vcM'tically  {A)  to  conform 
with  Rule  3b,  the  three-division  theme,  giving  the  divisions  for  the 
bookcases  and  mantle.  The  horizoiil.-il  divisions  (/))  were  then 
constructed  within  the  remaining  space,  aifecting  the  distance  from 
tlie  ])icture  moulding  to  the  manlle  and  from  llie  nianlle  to  tlie  floor 
line,  in  accordance  with  Rule  2a.  '^Flial  left  the  space  of  the  width 
of  the  cement  work  i(')  lo  be  subdivided  again  by  Rule  31),  while  the 
lop  of  the  wainscoting  panels  re-echoed  the  previous  horizontal 
divisions  of  Rule  2a.     Tlie  fireplace  oi)ening  merely  carries  out  at  D 


Three 
Vertical 

Divisions 
in  Wood 


Three 
Vertical 
Divisions 
in  Clay 
and  Cement 


[40 


THE     EVOLUTION       OF    A    OELSl&H      IMVOLVIMG,     THE.  USE!  OF= 
TWO  HOF£lXOt-HTA\_    AtSO    THRELE.  VERTICAL 'SUB  DlVl^.  lOM^ 


FIG- A-  THE    H0(517.0MTAU  AMD  ^E-RTlCAX- 

Divisions     AK.E     BA>^E.O    c)POM  STRucTURAu 
REQUlREMErHTsS  • 


FiQ,-B-   THE   PKir-)ARV  MAS5  WITH   TWO 
HORI"ZjOMTA1_  DIVI^IOM.5  •    RULE.S-1   •  Z' 


FI<=.-0'  THE    /^nODIXIOM     of  THR.EE. 

VERTIO^L-     DlVIAIOM^  •  RULE -3 -"b" 


APPEHO/».Ge. 

PROPOR.TIOM     OF 
MA3i      APPROXiMAXEUY 

q  -.s- 

FIGD-    THE  ADDITION  OF   5ue.-0lVI<3lOH5 
AMD   APPEMDAGE.-    RUL^3    AMD-4-' 


n&-E-    ADDITIOM    OF   DE.TAIl_5>    AMD 
E-NRICHMEMT- 


FOR  SHOC  WORKIMG  QKAV/lHCS:  OME-HALF   OF   FI&E--     'SHOUUD     NOW  BE:    EMLARCFiEO 
TO  A   ruU.Sl2:E  PENCIL  DRA-WIMG.  WITH    COMSTROCTian  AMD  PARTIAL  EH  O  VIEW  AODEO- 


Plate  15 


[41 


the  same  proportionate  relation  that  dominates  all  vertical  divisions, 
Rule  3b,  while  the  wainscoting  follows  the  general  horizontal  divisions 
of  Rule  2a.  By  this  method  we  have  variety  in  spacing  and  unity 
through   repetition   of  similar  proportions. 

The  cement  bench.  Figure  31,  has  a  three-division  arrangement 
to  break  up  the  monotony  of  the  long  rail,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
repeat  the  characteristics  of  a  horizontal  primary  mass. 

Figure  33,  Plate  14,  is  a  common  example  of  three  vertical 
divisions  in  metal  suggested  by  the  needs  of  service.  Figures  35 
and  36  are  thin  metal  problems.  The  familiar  pen  tray  is  primarily 
a  horizontal  mass,  so  determined  by  its  required  service  as  a  pen 
holder.  The  projecting  handles  form  the  outer  divisions,  and  the 
spacing  motive.  Rule  3b,  has  been  repeated  in  the  raised  projection, 
decorating  the  handles.  The  book  rack  in  Figure  36  is  an  example 
of  the  manner  in  which  a  nearly  square  mass,  so  designed  for  struc- 
tural reasons,  may,  by  Rules  3b  and  2a,  be  broken  into  a  fairly 
pleasing  arrangement  of  divisions. 

Rule  3c.  In  elementary  problems,  if  more  than  three  vertical 
divisions  are  required,  they  should  be  so  grouped  as  to  analyze  info 
Rules  3a  and  3b,  or  be  exactly  similar.  The  eye  becomes  confused 
by  a  multitude  of  vertical  divisions  and  it  is  nuicli  better  designing 
to  keep  them  within  the  numl)er  stated  in  this  chapter.  There  are 
instances,  however,  when  this  is  impossible.  Under  such  conditions 
ihe  following   treatment   should   })e   adopted: 

Unless,  as  stated,  a  large  number  of  vertical  divisions  may  be 
grouped  into  two  or  three  vertical  divisions  it  is  better  to  make  all 
of  the  divisions  of  the  same  size.  This  does  not  fatigue  the  eye  as 
much  as  would  tlie  introduction  of  a  number  of  complex  spacings. 
This  solution  enal)les  the  anuiteur  designer  to  deal  with  complex 
problems  with  an  assurance  of  securing  a  degree  of  unity. 


Three 
Vertical 
Divisions 
in  Metal 


More  Than 
Three 

Divisions 


INSTIU  (  TION    SMKHT 

Plate  lo  is  practically  self-explanatory  and  shows  llie  order  in  which  the 
various  divisions,  so  far  considered,  are  to  he  introduced  into  t  he  desij^n  tof,'etlier 
with  the  f,'rou[)inf;  of  details  within  lliose  divisions.  Fifjiire  I)  introduces  the 
additional  elenicnl  lennecl  tlie  a[)pendagc  to  be  coii'-idir  rd  in  (iiapter  \. 


[42] 

SUMMARY   OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)  Construction  of  the  rectangle  representing  the  vertical  or  horizontal  char- 
acter of  the  primary  mass  with  desirable  proportions.  Select  the  most 
prominent  surface  for  this  rectangle,  preferably  the  front  elevation. 

(6)  Subdivide  this  rectangle  into  two  or  three  structural  sections,  horizontal 
and  vertical  in  character.  Make  two  or  three  trial  freehand  sketches 
on  cross  section  paper  for  varied  proportions  and  select  the  most 
pleasing  in  accordance  with  rules. 

(c)  Translate  the  selected  sketch  into  a  scale  or  full  size  drawing  and  add 
additional  views  to  complete  the  requirements  of  a  working  drawing. 
Add  additional  structural  elements:    legs,  rails,  etc. 

{d)  For  shop  purposes,  enlarge  a  scale  drawing  to  full  size,  dimension  and 
otherwise  prepare  it  for  actual  use.  See  Figure  102a,  page  68,  for 
character  of  this  change. 

(e)    Construct  the  project. 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design  a  fire  screen  with  two  horizontal  and  three  vertical  major  sub- 
divisions. 

Design  a  bookcase  4  feet  2  inches  high  with  three  horizontal  and  two  vertical 
major  subdivisions. 


SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Rule  3a.  7/  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  two  vertical  divisions,  the 
divisions  should  be  equal  in  area  and  similar  inform. 

Rule  3b.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  three  vertical  divisions,  the 
center  division  should  be  the  larger,  with  the  remaining  divisions  of  equal  size. 

Rule  3c.  In  elementary  problems,  if  more  than  three  vertical  divisions  are 
required,  they  should  be  so  grouped  as  to  analyze  into  Rules  3a  and  3b,  or  be  exactly 
similar. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  nature  and  need  of  vertical  space  divisions? 

2.  State  the  rule  governing  the  use  of  two  vertical  space  divisions  and  give 

illustrations  in  wood,  clay,  and  metal. 

3.  Give  the  rule  relating  to  the  use  of  three  vertical  space  divisions  and  furnish 

illustrations  in  wood,  clay,  and  metal. 

4.  What  is  the  treatment  of  more  than  three  vertical  divisions.''     Why? 


Chapter  V 


APPENDAGES   AND   RULES   GOVERNING   THEM 


An  appendage  is  a  member  added  to  the  primary  mass  for  utili- 
tarian purposes.  In  the  industrial  arts,  when  an  appendage  is  added 
merely  for  the  purpose  of  decoration,  it  is  as  useless  and  functionless 
as  the  human  appendix  and,  as  a  source  of  discord,  should  be  removed. 

An  appendage  in  industrial  arts  may  be,  among  other  things, 
a  plate  rail,  bracket,  spout,  cover,  or  handle,  all  of  which  are  capable 
of  service  either  for  or  with  the  primary  mass.  In  architecture  it 
may  be  a  wing  or  ell  added  to  the  mass  of  the  building.  Simple  as 
its  design  may  seem,  it  is  often  so  placed  in  relation  to  the  main  or 
primary  mass  that  it  does  not  seem  to  "fit"  or  to  be  in  unity  with 
that  mass. 

Rule  4a.  The  appendage  should  be  designed  in  unity  with,  and 
proportionately  related  to,  the  vertical  or  horizontal  character  of  the 
primary  mass,  but  subordinated  to  it. 

Rule  4b.  The  appendage  should  have  the  appearance  of  floiving 
smoothly  and,  if  possible,  tangentiaUy  from  the  primary  mass. 

Rule  4c.  The  appendage  should,  if  possible,  echo  or  repeat  some 
lines  similar  in  character  and  direction  to  those  of  the  primary  mass. 

All  of  the  foregoing  rules  are  intended  to  promote  the  sense  of 
unity  between  the  primary  mass  and  its  appendages.  If  a  mirror 
on  a  dresser  looks  top-heavy  it  is  generally  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has 
not  l)een  subordinated  in  size  to  the  primary  mass.  Rule  4a.  If  the 
handle  projects  from  the  primary  mass  of  an  object  similar  to  the 
handle  on  a  pump,  it  has  not  been  designed  in  accordance  with 
Rules  4b  and  4c.  Again,  if  the  apj)endage  projects  from  a  primary 
mass  like  a  tall  ('liiiiiney  from  a  long  fl;il  building,  it  has  violated 
Rule  4a  and  has  not  been  ])roi)ortioiialely  related  to  the  character 
of  the  vertical  or  horizontal  j)r()j)ortions  of  the  })rimary  mass. 

It  should  be  rejidily  seen  that  if  the  primary  mass  has  one  domi- 
nant proportion  while  the  appendage  has  another,  there  will  be  a 

1«1 


Use  of  the 
Appendage 


Designing 

an 

Appendage 


Violations    of 

Appendage 

Design 


[44] 


APPEMOAOiE  . 


LiriK 


APPEMOAw&E. 


F1&  -37  • 

nOTE     THE    teE-UATlOM  OF  THE. 
•\/-   riASS    OF  THE.  APPEnD/\&E. 
TO   THE- VERTICAL-  UtME-S  OF 
THE.   PRiriARvriA^S    •  FlG£)-37-38- 


-  Hol».iT.or\TA.  L     MOTIVE - 


APPCJtO/Vst 


TH5SE.E    VEI^TICAL    DNl5lOtHS 
OF    THE.     A-PPEMDACE.    REJ=EAT 
THE.  L.OIHG   VERTICAL  UHE5 
OF  THE.  TABLE- •• 


*j      FI&-38 


F=l&-40 


EXAHPLES    OF     APPE.MDASE1S>      ir^     CLA5S    I      (WOCiD) 
AOOELO    TO      THE.     PCiriARV     nASS    FO(?  UTIUTARIAM 
PUfe POSES  •      THE.V     SHOULD     ALWAY3    BE.  f^ELATED  TO 
Th^   PRirAARV   MA^S  BY  TAriGEHTS  •  PARALL.ELO  •  OR   5>OTH' 


Plate  16 


[45] 

serious  clash  and  the  final  result  will  be  the  neutralization  of  both 
motives,  resulting  in  either  an  insipid  and  characterless  design  or  a 
downright  lack  of  unity. 

The  design  of  the  small  dressing  table,  Figure  37,  Plate  16,  with 
the  mirror  classing  as  an  appendage,  is  an  excellent  illustration  of     Appendages 
Rule  4a.     The  main  mass  of  the  table  is  vertical  in  character  and  the     in  Wood 
mirror  carries  out  or  repeats  the  character  of  the  primary  mass  by 
having  a  similar  but  subordinate  vertical  mass.     In  this  instance  it  is 
so  large  that  it  has  nearly  the  effect  of  a  second  primary  mass. 

As  tangential  junctions  are  difficult  to  arrange  in  wood  construc- 
tion and  particularly  in  furniture,  the  break  between  the  table  top 
and  the  mirror  has  been  softened  by  the  introduction  of  a  bracket 
or  connecting  link.  The  curves  of  the  link  cause  the  eye  to  move 
freely  from  the  primary  mass  to  the  appendage  and  thus  there  is  a 
sense  of  oneness  or  unity  between  the  two  masses. 

The  lantern  in  Figure  38  becomes  an  appendage  and  is  sul)ordi- 
nated  to  the  large  pedestal  or  support.  The  tangential  junction 
has  in  this  case  been  fully  possible  and  the  eye  moves  freely  from  the 
vertical  lines  of  the  base  to  the  similar  vertical  mass  of  the  lantern 
without  noticeable  break. 

The   service   of  the   dressing   lal)le.   Figure   39,   with   its   three- 
division  mirror  makes  the  problem  of  adaptation  of  the  apj)endage 
to  the  mass  of  the  table,  in  accordance  with  the  rules,  much  more     ,,  .^  . 
difficult.     Under  the  circumstances,  about  the  best  that  can  be  done,     Apoendaee 
at  the  same  time  keeping  williin  the  limitations  of  desired  service,  is     and  Primary 
to  plan  the  mirrors  in  accordance  witli  Kuk'  3b,  with  the  dominant     Mass 
section  in  I  he  center.     To  secure  an  aj)proach  lo  unity,  each  section 
of  the  mirror  should  echo   the   vertical  proportion  of   llie  primary 
mass  of  I  lie  table. 

The  loj)  of  llie  writing  stand,  in  b'igni'c  tO.  is  an  (>\ainple  of  a 
horizontal  aj)j)endage  which  repeats  Ihc  horizontal  chai'acter  of  the 
front  or  typical  face  of  the  j)rimary  mass  of  the  table.  The  small 
<lrawers  and  divisions  again  take  uj)  and  re])eat  the  horizontal 
nioli\'e  of  tiic  table,  while  the  entn'c  a j)|)('ii(lage  may  be  snbdi\'i(led 
under  Rule  31),  gi\iiiii  the  dominance  to  the  center  |)ortion.  The 
short  curves  in  I  he  api)endage  all  lend  to  h^ad  the  eye  in  a  satisfactory 
;in(l  smooth  ti'ansition  from  one  mass  to  the  otluT  or  from  the  table 


[46 


Figure  4.1a 


Courtesy  of  Berkey  and  Gay 


[47] 


top  to  the  appendage.  The  proportions  of  the  small  drawers  are 
similar  to  the  proportions  of  the  table  drawers.  Rule  4c.  All  of 
these  points  of  similarity  bring  the  masses  into  close  unity  or  oneness 
of  appearance. 

The  table  legs,  in  Figure  41,  are  more  difficult  to  adjust  satis- 
factorily. The  idea  of  the  designer  is,  however,  apparent.  The 
legs  leave  the  column  of  the  table  with  a  tangential  curve  and, 
sweeping  out  with  a  strong  curve,  repeat  the  horizontal  line  of  the 
table  top  in  the  horizontal  lines  of  their  bottom  surfaces. 

Figure  41a,  a  modification  of  Figure  39,  shows  close  unity  between     industrial 
the  three  divisions  of  the  mirror  due  to  the  pleasing  curve  of  the  center     Applications 
section  with  its  tendency  to  bind  the  other  sections  to  it.     Again, 
the  echoing  of  the  spacings  of  the  three  drawers  in  the  similar  spac- 
ings  of  the  three  mirrors,  makes  the  bond  of  unity  still  closer  to  the 
ideal  arrangement.     Rule  4c. 

Figures  41b  and  41c  are,  in  a  way,  parallel  to  Figure  41.  The 
eye  moves  freely  from  the  feet  (appendages)  along  the  smooth  and 
graceful  curves  to  the  tall  shaft  or  column  of  the  primary  mass.  The 
turned  fillets,  introduced  at  the  junction  of  the  appendage  and  the 
primary  mass,  in  Figure  41c,  have  a  tendency  to  check  this  smooth 
I)assage  making  the  arrangement  in  Figure  41b  preferable.  The 
hardware  for  the  costumers  is  well  chosen  and  in  sympathy  with  the 
vertical  proportions  of  the  design. 

With  the  word  "clay"  all  difficulties  in  the  treatment  of  append- 
ages vanish.     It  is  by  far  the  easiest  medium  for  the  adaptation  of     Appendages 
the  appendage  to  the  j)rimary  mass.      Covers,  handles,  and  spouts     in  Clay 
are  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  parts  falling  under  this  classification. 

The  process  of  the  designer  is  to  create  the  primary  rectangle, 
subdivide  it  into  two  horizontal  subdivisions  in  accordance  with 
Rule  i2a,  and  proceed  to  add  the  desired  iuiml)er  of  app(Midages. 
The  result  may  be  suggested  by  the  following  illuslralions.  In 
l"'igure  4'},  Plate  17,  the  cox'er  is  a  coiilinualion  of  (he  c-urve  of  the 
top  of  the  bowl.  Rule  4a;  the  l()j)s  of  llie  handles  are  continuations 
of  the  horizontal  line  in  the  toj)  contour  of  the  bowl,  while  the  lower 
})()rtions  of  the  handles  seem  to  spring  or  grow  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  bowl  with  a  tangential  curve. 


[48] 


1 


Figure  41b 


Courtesy  of  Berkcy  and  Gay 


Figure  41c 


[49] 


Figure  44  is  a  horizontal  primary  mass  with  the  horizontal 
subdivision  in  the  upper  section  of  that  mass.  The  spout  and 
handle  spring  naturally  from  the  bod}^  and  balance  each  other  in 
proportion,  while  the  cover  handle  rises  smoothly  from  the  primary 
mass.  The  horizontal  character  of  the  primary  mass  is  consistently 
carried  out  in  the  appendages. 

The  handle,  in  Figure  45,  leaving  the  body  at  a  tangent,  rises 
with  a  long  straight  curve  to  turn  suddenly  and  join  the  pitcher  in 
harmony  with  its  top.  The  apparent  abruptness  of  the  junction  is 
softened  by  the  rounded  corners  tyj)ical  of  clay  construction. 

The  Rookwood  set.  Figure  4'-2,  represents  three  similar  primary 
masses.  The  proportionate  ratios  and  the  horizontal  sul^divisions 
are  the  same  throughout.  The  handle  for  the  teapot  has  been  curved 
in  the  center  to  give  variety  to  the  handle.  This  variation  is  a 
difficult  thing  to  manage  without  consequent  loss  of  unity  as  by  this 
variation  Rule  4a  is  violated.  One  thing  nuiy  be  said  in  its  favor. 
It  brings  the  hand  closer  to  the  spout  and  thus  supports  the  pouring 
weight.  But  the  unusual  in  design  is  to  be  discouraged  until  sufficient 
skill  in  simple  designing  has  been  acquired. 

In  designing  handle  appendages  for  clay,  they  should  be  so  placed 
that  they  readily  control  the  weight  of  the  material  in  the  container 
and  afford  room  for  the  fingers.  Thus,  it  is  better  to  have  the  larger 
portion  of  the  handle  opening  at  the  top  of  the  primary  mass.  The 
spout  in  all  instances  should  continue  sufficiently  high  to  allow  the 
container  to  be  filled  to  its  full  capacity  without  danger  of  the  contents 
running  out  of  the  spout.  The  glaze  runs  into  rounded  corners 
nuich  more  freely  than  into  square  ones,  hence  it  is  preferable  to  use 
rounded  corners  wherever  possil)le. 

It  is  the  unexpected  curve  that  is  welcome  in  all  designing, 
provided  it  supports  the  structure  and  conforms  to  established  rules. 
After  com})leling  a  design  involving  api)endages  it  should  be  checked 
from  three  points  of  view;  (1)  service,  ('2)  unity  between  the  primary 
mass  and  the  aj)pendages,  and  (3)  variety  of  curvature.  On  this  last 
l)oint  it  is  needless  to  say  that  comj)ass  curves  are  not  desirable 
except  ill  rounding  small  corners  or  in  using  fillets.  It  is  well  known 
that  compass  curves  are  dillicult  to  assimilate  inio  pleasing  tangential 
<'fl"ects.     Thev   are   inclined    lo   be   monotonous   and    regular  with   a 


Covers, 
Spouts,  and 
Handles 


Requirements 
for 

Appendage 
Dejign 


50] 


APPEMDA6E.S  HiDIC^TEO 

BY  •  A-    IMCLUOE  UD3  • 
SPOUTS     AMD    HAMOI-E-S 


AVARIATIOM     OF  THE 

SYmnETRlCAL.  H/\noi-E.- 
S>EE-     TEXT- 


COMTlfiUITY  OF 
CURVATURE 


Fie«-4-2     IMCL-OOes     THRE.EL    PIECES 
MOTE.  THE    SiniLARlTY  OF  THE 
PRIMARY    r^-lASSE.>S  * 


FIG -4-3 


MOTE  THE    RELATIOn 
BETWEEN   THE  STRAI- 
GHT LIME  OF  THE  HAN- 
DLE   TOP  AMD  THE  TOP 
OF=  TM  E.    BOW  L_  •  MOTE. 
THE.  T"AHGEMT|AL.(.'MlOM 
OF  THE  LOWER  EMO    OF 
HAMDLE     AMD  ©OWL.' 

FIG  •  4-5  • 


FIG-44    • 

EXAMPLE-S     OF      APPEMOAGES   in     CLA^S      2 

tPOTTER^.n    ADDED  TO    THE  PCinARY  nA50  FOR 

UTILITAf?IAH     PURPOSES -THE-   PLASTICITY  OF 

CLAY    ALLOWS     A  PERFECT  TAMGEMT  I AU  UMIOM  WITH.  THE    BODY 


Plate  17 


[51] 


Appendages 
in  Metal 


"made  by  the  thousand"  appearance  to  them.  One  should  trust  Freehand 
to  freehand  sweeps,  drawn  freely  with  a  full  arm  movement  when  Curves 
possible.  All  curves  should  spring  naturally  from  the  primary 
mass.  Blackboard  drawing  is  excellent  practice  for  the  muscles 
used  in  this  type  of  designing.  In  a  short  time  it  will  be  found 
possible  to  produce  the  useful  long,  rather  flat  curve  with  its  sudden 
turn  (the  curve  of  force)  that  will  make  the  compass  curve  tame 
and  commonplace  by  comparison. 

Figures  55,  56,  and  57,  Plate  18,  show  the  close  bond  betvreen 
the  appearance  of  the  appendage  in  clay,  and  the  one  in  metal. 
^Yhile  it  is  technically  more  difficult  to  adapt  metal  to  the  rules 
governing  appendages  than  is  the  case  with  clay,  the  final  results  are, 
in  most  instances,  equally  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

In  most  of  the  figures  showing  examples  in  metal,  the  appendages 
have  to  be  secured  to  the  primary  mass  by  screws,  rivets,  or  solder, 
whereas  in  clay  they  may  be  moulded  into  the  primary  mass.  This 
tends  to  secure  a  more  unified  appearance;  but  in  metal,  the  June-  '. 
tion  of  the  handle  and  the  primary  mass  is  often  made  a  decorative 
feature  of  the  design  and  gives  added  interest  and  variety  to  the 
project. 

The  simple  primary  mass.  Figure  58,  has  a  horizontal  space 
division  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  mass.  This  point  of  variation  of 
the  contour  has  been  used  in  the  primary  masses  in  Figures  55,  56, 
and  57,  also  as  the  starting  point  of  that  dominant  appendage,  the 
handle.  Springing  tangentially  from  the  body,  it  rises  in  a  straight 
line  of  extreme  value  in  service,  then  with  a  slight  turn  it  parallels 
and  joins  the  top  of  the  bowl,  thus  fulfilling  the  design  functions  of 
an  appendage  from  both  points  of  service  and  beauty.  The  spout 
and  lid.  Figure  55,  may  be  likewise  analyzed. 

The  points  of  tangency,  in  Figure  54,  become  a  decorative  feature 
of  the  design.  The  liandles  in  the  i)arts  of  the  fire  set,  Figures  4S  Tangential 
and  49,  offer  diflereiil  j)r()blenis.  It  is  difficult  to  analyze  the  latter  Junctions 
figures  to  determine  the  api)endages  as  they  are  in  such  thorough 
unity  with  I  he  lunidles  and  are  j)ra('tically  subdivisions  of  the 
primary  mass.  Hiil  referring  to  lli(>  rnlc  slating  the  fact  that  the 
appendages  are  subordinated  to  and  attached  to  I  he  j)rimary  mass, 
it  may  justly  be  stated  that   the  slio\'el  portion  of  the  design  may 


[52] 


Fie  -4-6 


FI&-47 


APPEMDAGE. 
MAY  5E;2VE  A5  a 
UMKCOMNECTiriGTWO 
PRIMARY  nASS>tS- 


i=:ss*-^ 


Fig -50 


EXAMPLE.5    OF  APPEIi- 
DAGE.S     IN   CLASS   3* 

METAL-    ••  5EL  'A" 

MOTE  THE  TAMC?.EriTIAL 
RELATlOtl     BETWEEN 
THE  APPEJiDAGE  AMD 
PRIMARY  MASS  AT- T" 


Tie -48 


FIG- 49 


LirAK 


riG  •  52. 


MA 


riG-53  • 


Figures  55  TO  5s  rep- 
resent A  PRinAJ2V 
r-OASS     R'EPEATEO  TO 

Form  a   set*"*  the 
variations  of  the. 

PRIMARY  r>a^SS  HAVE 

BEEN   Followed  ©v 

SIMILAR   VARI/vmOMS  IN 
THE  APPETIDACiE.* 


riG-56 


FIG 


FIG -58  • 


Plate  18 


[53] 


legitimately  be  classed  as  an  appendage.  This  will  explain  the  need 
of  a  curve  at  the  junction  points  and  the  feature  of  the  decorative 
twists  in  Figure  49.  Both  designs  may  be  analyzed  into  three  hori- 
zontal divisions. 

The  andirons,  Figures  50  to  53,  illustrate  interesting  transitions 
in  wrought  iron  from  the  primary  mass  to  the  appendage.  The  Andiron 
vertical  shaft  of  wrought  iron  has  been  treated  as  a  primary  mass  Design 
while  the  feet  may  be  classed  as  appendages.  In  Figure  50  we  have 
an  example  of  a  frankly  square  junction  point.  Figure  51  discloses 
a  weld  with  rounded  corners,  forming  a  more  pleasing  junction  than 
does  the  abrupt  angle  of  Figure  50.  This  conforms  to  Rule  4b. 
The  appendage  legs  echo  or  repeat  the  vertical  lines  of  the  primary 
mass  and  there  is  consequently  a  sense  of  unity  between  them. 

In  Figure  52  the  appendage  foot  is  curved,  and  the  primary 
mass  has  a  similar  curve  on  the  top  of  the  vertical  column  to  apply 
Rule  4c  to  repeat  the  curve.  The  small  links  at  A"  indicate  an  attempt 
to  make  the  junction  point  more  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but  the  link 
is  too  large  to  accomplish  the  desired  result  successfully.  In  Figure 
53  the  links  have  been  materially  reduced  in  size  and  in  the  amount 
of  curvature.  In  this  example  the  eye  goes  unhampered  from 
appendage  to  primary  or  back  again,  without  perceptible  interrup- 
tion and  the  unity  of  the  mass,  seriously  threatened  in  Figure  52, 
is  restored  in  Figure  53. 

In  Figure  46  there  is  an  example  of  a  link  })econiing  large  enough 
to  be  classed  as  an  appendage  connecting  two  primary  masses,  e.g., 
the  lantern  and  the  wall.  Under  these  conditions,  one  end  of  the 
appendage  harmonizes  with  the  lantern  and  the  other  end  with  the 
wall.  Figure  47  shows  a  cast  brass  candlestick  which  is  an  excellent 
example,  from  the  Studio,  of  tangential  junction. 

Clay  may  readily  stand  as  the  most  adaptable  material  for 
appendages,  with  metal  ranking  second,  and  wood  third.  Tlie  grain 
of  wood  seems  to  interfere  with  the  tangential  jnnction  of  the  append- 
age and  j)rimary  mass.  Aj)pendages  of  wood  are,  however,  (|uile 
necessary  at  times.  Their  use  is  merely  a  matter  of  lessening  the 
contrast  of  conflicting  lines  in  an  addition  of  lliis  natnre. 

The  band  and  bracket  saws  are  recjuired  in  many  instances  to 
construct   the   connecting   lin]<    l)etween    ()})posing   masses   of   wood. 


Influence  of 
Tools  and 
Materials 


[54] 


•  Applied    ai^id    Comstfeuctive.      Desigm  » 

•  Principle. A     relatiom       of    prii^a^rv  r-^/^ss  to  /\pp>ehoage.& 

•  PRO&LE.M;       APPLICATIOM    TO  CLA55E.5   ^AMD3* 

:Crccc(XO; 
// 

CLAS^      2."  3 


AM    APPE-MOAGE.    15      /\    SUBORDINATE. 
MA:5^     added  to    THE.     PRIMARY  MA3,5 
FOR  UTIUTARIAM    PURPOSED*   IT  .5HOULO 
HARMOHI2.E    WJ-TH    THE:     PRIMARY    MASS 
IM     OUTLINE.     AHO      PROPORTION    AMD 
IF      PO 351 BUE.  ,  SPRING      TAMGEHTIALUY 
FROM   IT--- 


DRAW    THREE.     DE.5ICinC>  ILLUC)TRATiriev 
PRINCIPLE.  4-. 


Plate  19 


[55] 

Hand  building  or  casting  is  the  means  used  to  construct  the  append-     influence  of 
ages  in  plastic  materials.     Appendages  in  cement  are  seen  in  the     Tools  and 
uprights   for   cement   seats   and   are   generally   translated   into   the     Materials 
primary  mass  by  means  of  mouldings  or  curves.  [tontinued) 

Forging  or  thin  and  raised  metal  construction  affords  many 
examples  of  the  adaptability  of  material  in  constructing  appendages. 
Rivets  form  decorative  features  at  the  junction  points  and  should 
be  placed  with  great  care  and  relation  to  the  decoration  and  the  point 
of  tangencv. 

INSTRUCTION    SHEET    FOR    CLASS    PRESENTATION 

The  typical  views  to  be  used  in  classroom  work,  with  the  ordinary  range 
of  problems,  are  shown  on  Plate  19.  These  typical  views  should  be  supple- 
mented by  dimensions,  cross  sections,  and  other  views  whenever  necessary. 
Wood  construction  has  been  omitted  from  this  sheet,  l)ut  its  development  in 
design  is  quite  similar  to  the  steps  indicated  in  the  summary. 

SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)    Draw  the  primary  rectangle. 

(6)    Subdivide   the    rectangle   into   two   or  three  horizontal  and,  if    necessary, 

vertical  divisions. 
(c)    Estimate  the  dimensions  of  the  appendage  necessary  to  perform  the  desired 

service  in  the  best  manner. 
{d)  If  the  appendage  is  a  handle,  place  it  in  such  a  position  that  it  not  only 

appears  to  but  actually  does  support  the  weight  of  the  primary  mass, 
(e)    Complete  the  contour  curves  of  the  primary  mass  based  upon  tlu'  horizontal 

division  wiiich  acts  as  a  unit  of  measurement  or  a  turning  point. 
(/)    Join  tlie  appendages  to  the  primary  mass  l)y  means  of  tangential  curves. 
{g)   Establish  unity  between  the  {)rimary  mass  and  tlic  appendages  by  ai)plying 

Rules  4a,  -tb,  and  4c. 
(/()    Dimension  and  otherwise  prepare  the  drawing  for  shop  use.     See  Plate  sJG. 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design  a  sugar  bowl,  cream  pitcher,  and  teai)()t.  Consider  them  as  differ- 
ent  members  of  one  set. 

Design  a  sideboard  .'3  feet  .'J  inciies  high  with  phite  rack,  the  design  to  contain 
two  vertical  and  two  horizontal  divisions  exclusive  of  the  appendage. 

SUMMARY    Ol'    IMLES 

Rule  4a.  Thf  (tjipciidaijc  .shiiiild  be  dcxiijncd  in  iiiiilij  with,  and  prnjmrtinnati'hj 
related  to,  the  vertical  or  horizontal  character  of  the  primary  mass,  but  subordinated 
to  it. 


[56\ 

Rule  41).  The  appendage  should  have  the  appearance  of  flowing  smoothly 
and,  if  possible,  tangentially  from  the  primary  mass. 

Rule  4c.  The  appendage  shonld,  if  possible,  echo  or  repeat  some  lines  similar  in 
character  and  direction  to  those  of  the  primary  mass. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.   State  the  nature  and  use  of  the  appendage. 

•2.   What   is   the   relation   of   the    size   of   the   appendage   to    the    size    of    the 
primary  mass? 

3.  How  should  the  appendage  be  attached  to  the  primary  mass.' 

4.  How  does  Rule  4c  help  to  secure    unity    between    the    appendage    and    the 

primary  mass.' 

5.  Are  compass  curves  permissible  in  appendage  design.' 

6.  State  influence  of  tools  and  materials  upon  appendage  design. 


Chapter  VI 


ENRICHMENT   OF   THE   CONTOURS   OR   OUTLINES 

OF   DESIGNS   IN   WOOD 

With  this  chapter  we  introduce  contour  enrichment,  the  second 
major  division  of  industrial  arts  design. 

A  critic  of  furniture  designed  by  the  average  manual  arts  student 
lias  stated  frankly  that  while  it  might  have  been  honestly  constructed     Need  and 
it  was,  in  the  first  place,  too  heavy  for  a  woman  to  move  about  the     Value  of 
house  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  represented  a   decidedly  uneco-     Enrichment 
nomical  use  of  that  valuable  material,  wood.     Tliat  there  is  a  basis  in 
fact   for   this   statement   cannot   be   denied.     Is   it   true,   then,   that 
furniture  must  of  necessitv  be  clumsv  and  heavv  when  it  is  sufficientlv 
simplified  in  constructive  processes  for  school  work.^     We  may  say 
emphatically,  "No!" 

One  may  correct  the  proportions  of  an  object  and  reduce  the  size 
of  the  materials  in  it  to  a  mininuim  but  still  fail  to  secure  the  desirable 
elements  of  lightness  and  interest.  The  object  may  still  look  heavy 
and  remain  a  })ox-like  structure  void  of  tlie  grace  synonymous  with 
I  lie  best  in  design.  It  is,  however,  possil)le  to  correct  the  clumsy 
and  heavy  appearances  by  imparting  to  the  design  elements  of  grace 
and  lightness.  Two  methods  may  be  used,  singly  oi-  together: 
(1)  Enrichment  of  the  Functional  Outlines  or  Contours;  (2)  Surface 
Knrichment  sometimes  called  Space  l-'illing.  These  may  be  roughly 
classified  respectively  as  three  and  two  dimension  enrichment. 

"^riie  first,  or  outline  enrichment,  concerns  itself  with  llie  structural 
lines.  As  all  designing  ])rocesses  should  start  with  the  structure, 
it  will  be  our  j)olicy  to  do  so.  '^I'he  ])resent  chapter  will  deal  only 
with  enrichment  of  outlines  of  wood  })rojects. 

Rule  .>a.  Outline  cnriclufwiit  should  be  subordinated  to  and  support 
the  siructurc. 

Rule  ."ib.  Onl/iiic  cnric/uncnl  .should  add  grace,  lujhlucss,  and 
variety  to  the  design. 


Contour 
Enrichment 


[58] 


•  COMMON     ERF^OR.5    IM     COMTOUR     EIMRICHMEMT 


; 


FlG-5"9-  FIG-SO-  FIG-SI' 

MOMOTOMOUS    CUKVE:5  AMD     FAULTY  •  H     DlviSlOMS 

•  R05E.TTES  • 


FIG-  e>2- 
C0^1PASS  CURVES 


FIG  •  es  • 

LACKOF  COMTIMUITYAMO  DHITY 


m 


FIG-  es- 

MOMOTOM005  CURVES 


H 


FIG -67  • 
VIOLATES 
"SERVICE..  ETC- 


r 


c 


fi 


c 


g 


r 


^ 


i 


u 

,     FIG -64-       .. 
ORNAMEMT 
COMPASSCUI?- 
VE5  WITH    MO 
GRQUPIHG 


THE  APPEMOAGE 
FAILS  TO  &E  CONVINC- 
INGLY ATTACHEDTO 

THE  PRIMARY  MASS- 


y 


FIG  •  66  • 
LAOCOF  SIMPLICITY 


CUf?VES  OF 
EXTRAVAGANCE 

uctcor 

COMTJHUlTY 


A       FIG    69  ■ 
MOMOTOIiY 


FIG- 68- 


Plate  19a 


[59] 


It  is  the  purpose  of  enrichment  to  add  to  the  problem  (1)  grace; 
(2)  hghtness;  (3)  variety;  (4)  unity.  If  it  is  apphed  in  a  proper 
manner  it  should  likewise  add  to  the  apparent  structural  strength. 
We  should  carefully  guard  the  design,  therefore,  against  (1)  enrich- 
ment that  has  a  tendency  to  obscure  or  destroy  the  structural  lines; 
in  other  words,  enrichment  that  is  not  subordinated  to  the  structure, 
and  (2)  enrichment  that  adds  nothing  to  the  structure  by  its  appli- 
cation; that  is,  one  which  does  not  increase  either  the  apparent 
strength  or  the  beauty  of  the  object. 

As  an  example  of  this  first  point,  the  turned  candlestick  with  the 
candle  supported  by  a  stack  of  turned  balls  alternating  with  tauri 
or  thin  discs  tends  to  obscure  completely  the  sense  of  support.  Again, 
the  landscape  gardener  feels  that  he  is  violating  a  fundamental 
principle  in  design  if  b}^  planting  vines  to  grow  around  a  building, 
he  obscures  the  foundation,  and  the  roof  appears,  consequently,  to 
rest  on  and  be  supported  by  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  vines.  Thus 
it  is  seen  that  the  eye  registers  a  sense  of  structural  weakness  when 
the  main  supports  of  an  object  disappear  and  are  no  longer  to  be 
traced  under  the  enrichment. 

Under  the  second  point  falls  the  indiscriminate  ])lacing  of 
unrelated  objects  in  the  contour  enrichment.  Naturalistic  objects 
similar  to  the  claw  foot  and  the  human  head,  for  example,  should  give 
way  to  natural  curves  that  add  to  the  appearance  of  total  strength. 
AVhere  are  we  to  find  these  curves  suited  to  our  purpose? 

Up  to  this  j)oint  em})hasis  has  been  })lac(Ml  upon  straight  and 
curved  lines  immediately  connected  witli  ])ure  service.  For  grace 
and  lightness  it  is  necessary  to  depart  a  I  limes  from  the  rigidity 
of  straight  lines.  To  understand  the  character  of  this  departure 
let  us  consider  a  simj)le  bracket  as  a  su})port  for  a  shelf. 

This  bracket  acts  as  a  link,  connecting  a  xcrlical  wall  or  leg  with 
a  horizontal  member  or  shelf.  A  bracket  shajx'd  hke  a  4,3-(legree 
triangle,  Figure  10,  page  24,  gives  one  the  sense  of  chimsincvss.  If  the 
feehng  of  grace  is  to  l)e  inij)arted  tlie  eye  must  move  smoothly 
along  the  outline  of  the  bracket,  giving  one  a  sensation  of  aesthetic 
pleasure.  A  curved  line  will  j)r()(lu(('  this  elfect  more  comph^tely 
than  will  a  straight  line.  One  nnisl  likewise"  get  the  f(H'ling  that 
the  cur\e  of  the  bracket  is  designed  to  sui)])oit  the  shelf. 


Purpose  of 

Contour 

Enrichment 


Requirements 
of  Contour 
Enrichment 


Valuable 
Curves  for 
Outline 
Enrichment 


[GO] 


•  riATURAL     AMD      GEOMETRIC   CURVED    WITH  THEIK  USE   IM    FUnCTlOMAL. 

OUTUME.      EMI^lCHriEnT  • 


CURVE  OF 
FORCE  AS 
HATUKE>S 
SUPPORTING 
CURVE 


A  GREEK-  FRAGMEMT 
FIG    7Z- 

HGUEES     "70       T2.         REPRESEMT   THf^ 
CURVE   OF     FORCE      y^5    SEEM     IH 
HATURE    AMD    ORNAkMEHT   •    "  F  " 


FIG-  TI- 
THE   CURVE.  OF 
f=-OPtCE. 


AX.VS 


AH  APPROXIMATE 
CURVE.  QF  FORCE 


/ 


.!> 


1    /THECORVE  OF 
FORCE    AS  A 
5UPPORT1MG 
.     CUKVE  IM  THE 
jhy     IHDUSTRIAU 


Pie.  -TA- 


APPLICATIOH5    OF" 
THE  CURVE.    OF 
Fo«:ce. 


FIG    77- 


FIG-T6    I  LLC!  5- 
TRATIMG    ECHO 

OF  -51MILAR  Curved 

AT    "E"  -^ 


Plate  20 


[61 


The  Curve  of  Force 

Turning  to  Figure  70,  Plate  '20,  we  find  that  whenever  nature  Valuable 
desires  to  support  a  weight  she  is  inchned  to  use  a  pecuhar  curve  seen  Curves 
at  F.  Possibly  through  continued  observation  the  eye  has  asso- 
ciated this  curve  with  strength  or  supporting  power.  Figure  71 
has  detailed  this  curve.  It  is  found  to  consist  of  a  long,  rather  flat 
portion  with  a  quick  and  sudden  turn  at  its  end.  The  curve  is 
known  to  designers  as  the  Curve  of  Force  and  is  most  valuable  in 
all  forms  of  enrichment.  Designers  even  in  early  ages  used  it  in 
some  form  as  will  be  noted  from  the  fragment  of  Greek  sculpture 
in  Figure  7*2.  Its  beautv  rests  in  its  varietv.  A  circle  has  little 
interest  due  to  its  rather  monotonous  curvature.  The  eye  desires 
variety  and  the  curve  of  force  administers  to  this  need  and  gives  a 
sense  of  satisfaction.  As  designers  on  wood,  how  are  we  to  utilize 
this  curve  for  purposes  of  outline  enrichment.^ 

For  approximate  similarity  of  curvature  an  ellipse  constructed 
as  shown  in  Figure  73  will  be  found  convenient.  By  drawing  several 
ellipses  of  varying  sizes  upon  sheets  of  tin  or  zinc,  a  series  of  templates 
of  utmost  practical  value  may  be  formed  and  used  as  was  done  in 
securing  the  curves  of  force  in  Figures  74  and  75.  If  the  rail  or  shelf 
is  longer  than  the  post,  measured  downward  from  the  rail  to  the  floor 
or  to  the  next  shelf,  the  ellipse  should  be  used  with  its  major  axis 
placed  in  a  horizontal  position.  Figure  75.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
j)ost  is  longer  than  the  shelf  the  ellipse  should  have  its  major  axis 
in  a  vertical  position.  Figure  74.  Figures  70  and  77  show  other 
instances  of  the  use  of  tlie  a})proximate  curve  of  force.  Many 
simihir  practical  ai)i)licati()ns  will  occur  to  the  designer. 

We  have  classed  the  l)racket  as  a  link  connecting  a  vertical  and 
horizontal  struct ure.  Mouldings  may  likewise  be  considered  as  Mouldings 
links  connecting  similar  horizontal  or  vertical  surfaces  by  bands  of 
graded  forms.  Inasnuicli  as  they  elfecl  the  onllini^  lh(\\-  are  consid- 
ered in  this  chapter.  As  the  mouldings  are  to  assist  the  eye  to  make 
I  lie  junij)  from  one  surface  to  another  by  easy  steps,  the  position 
from  which  the  mouldings  are  to  be  seen  determines  to  some  extent 
I  heir  design. 

Figure  78  shows  \\w  relation  of  the  s))eclalor  to  three  types  of 
mouldings  at  J,  />.  and  (' .     The  top  or  vroirti  (.1)  is  to  l)e  seen  from 


An  Approxi- 
mate Curve 
of  Force 


6-2 


EMK-ICHMEMT  OF"    THE-  COMTOUR.  O^  OUTLIHE    ©V  MOOl-DlH&S  APPUED 
-TO    WOOO---      TYPE5      or   MOUUOIN&-    ■    WOOD    TuRHIHG    PKO&LEnS  • 

77  ^f  COMTIHUITY         ^l 


1 

1 

A 


IS  c 


FIG    -TQ 


FIG-- 83 


n 


CROWN 


BEAD 

aiRVE  OF 
FOKCE 


M 


r 


HTEKTIEDI/Me 


BEAD 


nODiFlED 
CU(?VE  OF 
FOKCE 


j: 


H0TE:THEME£Tlrt6 
OF  TWO  CURVES  IS 

WITH  A  ^UAKE- 


■5COT1A 


^Z_ 


r 


p  BASE 


=^' 


IHTERMEOIATE 


&*v£E 

Fie.  -  ©4- 


^ 


^^ 


^ 


? 


•  COnTRA5T 


.;^ 


FIG.-  So-     PRACTICE  CORVES 


■^ "    y 


r: 


C^-MA  RE.CTA  C"^MA  REVER5A 


FIG -TO- 


VZL 


SCOTIA. 


-^o 


i-P 


FIG- SI-   CQHTiriuouS  CURVES 


^ 


s. 


FAULTS 


^ 


0<V\f\ 


■"<<;- CURVE  OF   ^ 


z: 


IZ 


JV 


J 


7^ 


zx 


FOKCE 


Ji> 


FIG-    83       REPKESEHTi     K    COKKECTL-Y  OESIGHEO 
CAHOLESTICK    W\TH    OUTUUE  EMI^lCHMEliT^  C--ROUPED 
IH  ACCOKOAMCE   WITH   KULEi    a  A   AMD   &•    F1&OT2E   S4- 
IS  ATYPICAL  FAULTS  DEMG-M  VIOLATING    PKoPOKTlOHATE. 
CI^UPIMG   AMO  COKTINUITY     WITH  LACK  OF   GOMTRAST  • 


T 


L-O 


FIG   CQMTKA^TED 
82.  -    CUtiVES  ■ 


Tlate  21 


[  68  ] 


below.  On  a  large  project  the  angle  of  the  mouldings  with  the  body 
of  the  object  should  be  approximately  45  degrees.  The  intermediate 
moulding  {B)  is  lighter  than  the  crown  and  forms  a  transitional 
link  that  may  l)e  seen  from  either  above  or  below.  The  lower  or  base 
moulding  (C)  is  the  widest  member  of  the  group  as  demanded  by 
our  sense  of  stability.  It  is  seen  from  above.  Both  for  sanitarv  and 
structural  reasons  it  projects  but  slightly  from  the  base.  With  this 
grouping  in  mind  it  is  needless  to  say  that  a  faulty  moulding  is  one, 
some  portion  of  which,  hidden  by  intervening  moulding,  cannot  be 
seen  by  the  spectator. 

Architectural  design  and  history  have  formulated  a  series  of 
curves,  geometric  in  character,  that  are  regarded  as  standards  in  the 
Industrial  x\rts.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  curves  with  their 
constructions  are  shown  in  Figure  79.  The  horizontal  divisions  are 
analj^zed  in  accordance  with  Rules  2a  and  "^b.  It  is  noticed  that  the 
Scotia  possesses  a  curve  having  the  shai)e  of  the  curve  of  force,  while 
the  two  Cvmas  are  saved  from  monotonous  division  by  means  of 
their  reversed  curves,  illustrating  the  contrast  of  direction.  The 
curves  of  Figure  80  are  excellent  lines  for  freehand  practice  in  design- 
ing mouldings  and  will  develop  the  principle  of  continuity  of  curvature 
or  the  smooth  transition  of  one  curve  into  the  next. 

To  keej)  this  continuity  from  the  monotony  of  a  ^Marcel  Wave 
it  is  customary  to  break  continuous  curves  by  a  fillet  such  as  a  straight 
line  as  shown  at  D,  Figures  81,  82,  and  83.  When  the  desired  outside 
diameter  has  been  reached,  contrast  of  direct  ion  is  necessary  and 
pleasing  as  a  return.  Figure  82.  A  glance  at  the  curves  so  far 
considered  will  (|ui('kly  determine  wlielher  they  are  fitted  for  the 
crown,  intermediate  or  base  mouldings.  A  ('ur\'(^  should  join  a 
straight  line  with  either  a  tangential  or  right  angle  junction,  which 
makes  for  positiveness  in  contour  expression. 

Aj)j)lication  of  tliese  curves  to  onlline  ein-ichment  for  wood 
hirning  projects  is  to  be  governed  by  a  sli'ici  adhenMiee  to  Kules  2a 
<»r  2b,  otherwise  confusion  and  lack  of  unity  will  rcsnll.  Figure  8.3 
sli(»ws  a  major  grouping  nndci-  IJnle  2l)  with  I  lie  subdivisions  and 
minor  curN'es  arranged  under  Hules  2a  and  2l).  l^'igure  81-  shows 
a  disregard  t'oi-  I'ulcs  and  the  result  is  an  undesirable  monotony  of 
eonloui'.      If    smooth    and    e\'en    eonlinuity    oi'    eurxature    is    gi\en 


Mouldings 

{Continued) 


Continuity 

and 

Contrast 


Grouping 

of 

Curves 


[64] 


Figure  85. —  Modern  Candlesticks 


Figure  86. —  Modern  Book  Trough 


Courtesy  of  Berkey  and  Gay 


05  ] 


Evolution  of 
Enriched 
Outline 
Design 


considerable  thought,  together  with  that  for  systematic  grouping 
and  variety,  a  pleasing  result  from  wood  turning  (a  much  abused 
Init  pleasing  form  of  outline  enrichment)  may  be  secured.  Figures 
85  and  86  are  illustrations  from  the  industrial  field  with  moulding 
curves  grouped,  following  and  supporting  the  structural  lines  of  the 
object.  The  columns  in  Figure  86  might,  however,  be  advanta- 
geousty  reversed. 

Large  objects  designed  to  be  seen  from  a  distance  require  larger     Materials 
space  divisions  for  their  mouldings  than  do  small  objects  seen  from 
a    nearer   point.     Material    affects    the    curve    somewhat.     Smaller 
mouldings  are  more  suited  to  the  expensive  woods  like  mahogany 
while  larger  curves  may  be  used  in  pine  or  oak. 

We  now  have  at  our  command  a  number  of  interesting  and 
serviceable  curves  suited  to  the  material.  Plate  2"^  is  a  sheet  of 
api)lications.  Figures  87  to  94  deal  with  the  book-rack  end  and  in 
this,  as  in  the  initial  chapter,  architecture  is  referred  to  as  the  source 
for  manv  law^s  of  industrial  design.  It  has  seemed  wise  to  illustrate 
some  of  these  important  parallels  as  follows: 

We  will  assume  the  type  of  joint  construction  of  the  book-rack  end 
as  settled  and  the  question  of  enrichment  to  be  under  consideration. 

Figure  87  is  a  simple  primary  mass  without  enrichment.  It  is 
comparable  to  the  plain  box-like  structure  with  monotonous  outline 
and  without  interest.  The  eye  follows  tlie  outhne  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrows,  i)ausing  at  the  s(|uare  corners,  which  inten-u])t  a  free 
movement  by  a  harsh  right  angle.  The  base  (an  apj)endage)  rei)eats 
in  each  instance  the  lines  of  the  j)rimary  mass. 

Figure  88.  Hound  corners,  by  IVcHMiig  the  design  from  the  right 
angles,  accelerate  I  he  eye  movement  and  give  a  sense  of  added 
interest  and  grace  to  the  contour. 

Figure  89.  The  cornice  of  a  building  suggests  a  similai-  arrange- 
ment which  may  be  addccl  to  tli<'  i)rimary  mass.  It  adds  the  element 
of  contrast  of  direction  ;iii(l  xariety  of  widths. 

Figure  90.      The    in.iiii    |)rimary    mass    of    a    building    with    two 
e(|ual  ap|)endag(\s  will  suggest   the  enrieliiiieiit  of  the  outline^  in  sym- 
pathy with  three  \-ei'tie.-il  divisions.      I{nle'5b.      The  rounded  corners     Variations 
again  assist   the  eye  to  ti;i\'el  freely  around  the  contours,  thus  giving 
a  sense  of  unit\'  to  the  entire  form. 


[66] 


EriRlCHME-NT  OF     THE.      FUMCTIOMAL.     OUTLlME-S   OR-  COhl-pOURvS       A.2> 

A.PPL.IED   TO     VM'OOO    • 

•THE       EVOLUTIOM    OF     OUTUHE.    E-HRICHMEMT    OF"  /\  BOOK  R/^CK. 
EiriD   V/ITH    CR.05-5    REFEK.E.HCE-S   TO  PARALLE.l_S  IH    A.V^CH  ITE.CTURE.  • 


FIG  •  67 


FIG-  ae> 


Fi&e>s 


f 


FFF 

P 

s  a 

PPT 

VARIATION    OF 
FIG-    67    ■   IHTF^O- 
DOCIHG     THEr- 


EL 


FIG-Sp 

rn 


ROUE, 

3 


FIG.-  Si- 


ne •  92.- 


A   SLIGHT  TAPERIMG 
OF  THE  PKIMART  MASS 
TEnV^S   TO  VAKS'  THE 
WIDTH    AMD  CAUSE 7riE. 
EYE  TO  MOVE  in  AM 
UPWARD    DlKBCTlOrt* 


FlGi-  33 


F^lC=i-  BA- 

HOTE  THE  FACT  THAT 
5IMPT-E  AMD  SIMILAR 
S     CURVED  AMD  STI^Al- 
I  c-,HT  UHE5     ARE 
t     USEO    iri    EiiRlCH- 
<      MEMT- 


F1&URE5  9I    TO  94- PLACE.  Em FHAS IS   UPOH     THE.    TOP   OR:   CROVy-MlHO     UMES 
F0C05IH6   AT  POIMT'DC'--- THEOUTLIMES    ARE.   5TROKGL^'     D^hAMlO  ' 


FOOT  STOOL  VARIATIOMS  AMD   DETAILS   WITH  OUTLIME  EHRICHMEMT  \HpAKTlHG 


\.u., 


F16-95- 


D 


Qi 


GRACE  AHO  LIGHTa" 
HE5S  TQ  THE  ViE^lGJi 


FIG    96- 


FlG-97- 


FIG    98- 


VAR.\ATlOns  OF 
TOP  AriD 
BOTTOt^ 

RA\L5  •  THE  LQWEI? 
DESISM  IS  STKUC- 
TURALLV  WEAKEMED 
AT'2"    Bi  Ert^^lCH- 
KEHT  . 


FIG  -99 


•   VARIATIOMS 
OFA SQUARE 


FIG  ICXJ 


Plate  22 


[67] 


((oJiti'*< 


FIGM02  E>CTKAVAGAMT 
CUR.VE5'  DISKEGARDIMG 

ECOrioMY  or  mate^i/m-- 

It  i:>   CLUMPY  Ah DiACK- 

iriG>    DIVISION Au  no^- 

IIZIOMTALGKOUP'IHOC^) 


FIG-IOI       K.EFI^ESEriT^      COHFU^EO  OOTLiriE:  EHK-lCH- 
MEHT-   THE.    CUKVES  A^^E  Ur1^E.LATED  TO  AMD    0E.5TK.OY 
THE.   STeuCTUtSAU  LIIHES---  USELESS    'bU^FAeE.  ois- 
NAHEhT     TEhD5    TQ    ACCEMTUATEL  T"HE.  OTHET^^iSE 
FAOL-TVU^     ^Ki^lCHED    OOTUME.- •  • 

Figures  101  uiid  10^2 


Figure  91.  The  j)C(liinent  of  a  Greek  teinj)le  willi  tlie  interest 
centered  at  the  toj)  of  the  jx'dinient  (x)  causes  a  siniihir  concentration 
of  interest  in  the  l)ook-rack  end.  "^Phe  shglil  inclination  of  the  sides 
su})])hes  varietx'  of  widths.  'I'he  .-irchitect  considers  an  ol)jecl  with 
the  interest  centered  in  tliis  manner  in  I  he  uj)j)er  j)ortion,  as  j)ossessing 
more  indivichi.ilil y  llian  a  inotix-e  witli  purely  horizontal  lines 
across  the  top  boundary. 


[68] 


roibW-j  r-cf^LLj^J. 


Figure  102a 


[69] 


Figure  103. —  A  ^lock-ni  'rrlc|)liuiic  Stnnd  and  Stool 


Criiirtcsy  of  Berkry  and  Gay 


[70] 


Courtesy  of  Berhey  and  Gay 

Figure  104. —  Modern  Chair 

Figure  9*2.  In  this  figure  the  curved  inchnation  facihtates  the 
upward  movement  of  the  eye,  at  the  same  time  supplying  variety 
of  width. 

Figure  93.  The  addition  of  an  appendage  to  the  outhne  of  the 
Greek  temple  suggests  a  slight  drop  or  variation  in  the  top  edge  of 
the  book-rack  end  which  gives  increased  interest  and  grace  through 
varietv. 

Figure  94.  Contrast  of  direction  is  supplied  in  this  suggestion 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  we  are  adding  much  to  the  interest 
bv  the  corner. 


[71 


Figure  105. —  A  Modern  Serving  Table 


Cotirte/!!/  of  Berkcy  and  Gay 


Figures  O.j  lo  !)S  ;\vc  \nriali()iis  of  one  lluMiic,  the  fool  slool,  and 
Fii^iiTV  9!)  adds  sn^'u'csl  Inc  designs  I'oi-  rails.  I)  in  Fignrc  99  shows 
the  ein-iehnienl  Hnc"  eul  to  a  de])Ui  which  Ihrealens  the  struclnral 
value  of  I  he  rail.  "^Fhis  is  eon-eeted  in  i'^igure  101).  I^'igure  100  is  an 
ap[)liealion  of  t  lie  curve  of  force  lo  a  ciiair  leg  />,  with  olher  ])()ssi- 


[72] 


Figure  lOoa 


[73] 


Fi{;uRE  lOG. —  Sheraton  Table 


Courlcstj  of  Ilcrlccij  and  Gay 


bilities  at  A  and  C.  Numerous  applications  of  the  varied  curves 
under  consideration  are  found  tlirou.^liout  this  sheet. 

Before  closing  with  enriclied  outlines  it  is  well  to  consider 
flagrant  violations  of  this  enrichment  now  on  I  he  market.  Figure 
101  shows  a  typical  exami)le  of  complete  lack  of  unity  and  simplicity. 
It  is  a  type  of  design  often  associated  with  cheai)ly  constructed  furn- 
iture. It  is  an  ornate  ])ar()dy  on  outline  enrichment.  The  curves 
of  extravagance  are  well  shown  in  Figure  lO'^  wliere  large  bulbous 
curves  with  no  systematic  grou])iiig  combine  disastrous  waste  of 
material  with  lack  of  grace  or  lightness.  It  is  excellent  i)ractice 
to  redesign  such  examj)les  as  those  shown  in  Figures  101  and  lO'^ 
with  special  refercMice  to  Rule  .>(•. 

Rule  .5c.  OufliHc  cnn'r/nncfiL  hi/  //.v  similarity,  .s/ioiild  give  a  .scn.sc 
of  oneness  or  iniilij  to  the  de.siyn,  hindifig  divenjent  members  together. 


[74] 


h 

r 
y 

r 

y 

r 
ui 

u 

D 

r  • 


do 

X 


o 

P 
u 

h 
\0 


CD 


x: 

1. 

U- 

iiJ 

c 

M^ 

z: 

< 

^o 

z 

1 

^' 

M 

i 

[75] 

Illustrations  103  to  106  are  typical  forms  of  present  day  outline 
enrichment.  Limitations  of  space  will  not  permit  reference  to  the  use 
of  Period  furniture,  Sheraton  and  Hepplewhite  designs  are  most 
adaptable  for  school  uses  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  Sheraton 
desk  (Figure  106)  with  the  foot  stool  in  Figure  96. 


INSTRUCTION    SHEET 

Figure  83  and  Plates  22  and  23  are  indicative  of  what  might  be  obtained 
from  a  class.  The  problem  represented  on  Plate  23  is  advantageously  colored 
with  the  intended  stain  and  with  a  small  section  of  side  wall  and  trim  visible. 
See  Chapter  IG,  Figures  458  to  4G3.  Figure  102a  shows  the  method  of  enlarging 
a  design  into  a  full  size  working  drawing  for  shop  purposes. 


SUMMARY   OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)  Draw  the  primary  rectangle. 

(6)  Subdivide  the  rectangle  into  vertical  and  horizontal  divisions. 

(c)  Determine  parts  to  he  treate<l  by  contour  enrichment. 

(d)  Determine  method  suited  to  the  project:    wood  turning,   moulding,  etc. 

(e)  Group  the  wood  turning  curves  under  a  definite  system  included  under 

Rules  2a  and  2b.     Group  the  mouldings  under  crown,  intermediate,  and 
base  classifications.      Add  this  enrichment  to  the  primary  mass  or  make 
other  simple  variations  that  will  not  destroy  the  unity  of  the  project. 
(/)    Dimension  and  otherwise  prepare  the  draw  ing  for  shop  use. 
{g)    Construct  the  project. 

Note. —  If  the  designer  is  not  properly  equipped  to  prepare  his  own  mould- 
ings, he  should  consult  moulding  catalogs  or  the  stock  of  some  local  lumber 
company. 


ADDITIONAL    SI  GGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design    a    wood    pedestal    with    the    curves    grouped    into    three    horizontal 
divisions. 

Design  a  hall  taljlc  2  feet  10  inches  liigli  and  add  simple  contour  (Miriciiiucnl. 


SUM.\L\RV    Ol'    HI  LES 

Rule  .5a.  Outline  cnrirlinicnt  should  lie  siilionii iiatrd  to  and  support  the 
structure. 

Rule  5b.  Outline  enrichiinut  .■thould  aild  (jracr,  iK/htnr.ss,  and  rurictij  to 
the  design. 

Rule  5c.  Outline  enriehtnent.  hi/  its  si niildriti/,  should  give  a  sense  of  oneness 
or  unity  to  the  design,  binding  divergent  members  together. 


[76] 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  State  nature  and  need  of  enrichment. 

2.  \\'liat  two  forms  of  enrieliment  are  commonly  used  in  industrial  arts  design? 

3.  What  four  qualities  are  added  to  industrial  design  by  contour  enrichment? 

4.  What  disturbing  elements  should  be  guarded  against  in  the  application  of 

contour  enrichment? 

5.  Describe  the  curve  of  force  and  its  function  in  the  contour    enrichment 

of  wood. 

6.  What  are  mouldings?     Name  three  types  of  mouldings,  their  positions  with 

relation  to  the  eye  level,  and  some  curves  used  in  their  design. 

7.  Give  examples  of  curves  of  continuity  and  contrast.     By  what  means  should 

two  contrasting  curves  be  separated? 

8.  How  should  a  curve  join  a  straight  line? 

9.  Explain  the  grouping  of  contour  curves  in  wood  turning  projects  similar 

to  a  round  leg  or  candlestick. 

10.  Present  five  designs  for  book-racks,  enriched  by  changes  of    the  contour. 

Give  architectural  cross  references  for  each  design. 

11.  Present  three  well  designed  table  or  chair  legs   and  top   and   bottom  rails 

and  assemble  one  of  these  in  a  design. 


Chapter  VII 


ENRICHMENT    OF   THE    COxNTOURS    OR    OUTLINES    OF 

DESIGNS   IN   CLAY 

In  the  medium  we  are  now  about  to  consider  there  is  a  tendency 
for  the  enthusiastic  beginner  to  over-elaborate  the  outhne  into  Need  of 
meaningless  forms.  This  possibly  is  due  to  the  ease  with  which  Enrichment 
clay  is  manipulated.  It  would  be  well  then  to  ask  two  questions 
before  starting  with  the  work  of  enriching  the  simple  structure. 
First,  why  should  it  be  enriched  —  is  there  a  positive  gain  by  so  doing? 
Second,  (if  the  decision  is  favorable  to  enrichment)  where  should  it  be 
enriched.^     Let  us  co-ordinate  the  parts  to  assist  in  this  process. 

Rule  5d.     Parts  of  one  design  differing  in  function  shoidd  differ 
in  appearance  but  be  co-ordinated  with  the  entire  design.     As  a  sugges-     parts 
tion  to  guide  one  in  enriching  an  object  it  is  necessary  to  consider     Differing 
that  parts  differing  in  function  may  differ  in  appearance,  but  as     in  Function 
members  of  one  family  they  should  still  be  related  to  the  whole.     For 
example,  a  spout,  handle,  and  lid  may  differ  in  design  from  that  of  the 
body  of  a  pitcher  because  they  differ  from  it  in  function.     Again,  the 
rim  and  foot  of  a  vase  may  be  slightly  changed  or  individually  accented 
l)ecause  of  their  respective  duties.     The  base  and  holder  of  a  candle- 
stick may  Yury  in  design  from  the  central  ])art  or  handle,  as  each  has 
a  special  function  to  perform.     This  rule  of  the  change  of  appearance 
with  the  change  of  functional  service  (Rule  5d),  is  found  throughout 
architectural   design.     ^Fhe   variation   in   design    in    I  lie   base,   slinfl, 
and  capital  of  a  column  is  possibly  one  of  the  most  common  examples. 
While   differing   in    function    they   still    must   hare    unifi/   and   ^' hold     Unity 
together." 

These  functional  i)arts  of  one  design,  (liffering  in  service  rendered, 
form  centers  of  construction  and  may  receive  em|)liasis  in  outline 
enrichment.  Corners  and  terminal  ])()ints  are  likewise  a\ailal)le 
for  decoration  and  will  be  dixiisxMJ  ;il  leiiglli  later. 


[78] 


Figure  107. —  Clay  Outline  Enrichment  in  the  Rookwood  Potteries 


Enrichment  in  clay  and  metal  generally  means  a  substitution 
of  curved  for  straight  lines  in  the  enriched  portions  of  the  design. 
These  curves  have  the  ability  to  impart  grace,  lightness,  and  variety 
to  an  object  provided  they  are  based  upon  constructive  features 
of  the  problem.  They  must  have  a  unit  of  measurement  and 
must  likewise  be  appropriate  to  the  material.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  deal  with  clay  in  this  chapter  and  follow  with  a  con- 
sideration of  metal  in  another  chapter. 

In  Figures  109  to  123,  Plate  24,  we  have  a  number  of  examples 
of  variation  of  practically  the  same  primary  enclosing  rectangle. 
Figure  108  represents  a  "squarely"  proportioned  circular  bowl 
lacking  both  refinement  of  proportion  and  enrichment.  Figure  109 
has  added  refinement  of  proportions.  Figures  110  and  111  have 
introduced  an  outline  enriched  to  the  extent  of  a  simple  curve.     The 


[•79  ] 


base  is  the  dominant  width  in  the  first,  and  the  top  dominates  in 
width  in  the  second.  The  outhne  in  Figure  11"2,  while  simihir  to  110 
for  a  portion  of  its  length,  departs  at  a  stated  point  and  by  curving 
in  toward  the  base  supplies  more  variety  to  the  contour.  We  have 
already  said  that  this  outline  curve  should  have  a  unit  of  measurement 
and  by  referring  to  Rules  2a  and  2b  we  are  able  to  formulate  the 
following: 

Rule  oe.  In  cylindrical  forms'  outline  cin-rcs  ivith  a  vcriical  tend- 
ency should  have  their  turning  points  or  units  of  measurement  in  accord- 
ance with  the  horizontcd  divisions  of  Rules  2a  and  2b.  Figures  112 
and  113  have  as  their  unit  of  measurement  two  horizontal  spaces 
formed  in  accordance  with  Rule  2a,  while  Figures  116  and  117  have 
still  more  variety  by  the  addition  of  a  compound  curve  with  its 
turning  points  or  unit  of  measurement  l)ased  upon  Rule  2b.  Figures 
114  and  115  with  outlines  similar  to  those  in  Figures  112  and  113, 
respectively,  have  an  additional  enrichment,  the  foot  and  rim 
accentuation. 

The  new  element  of  enrichment  consists  of  accenting  bv  adding 
to  the  design  a  modeled  rim  and  a  base  or  foot,  as  it  is  technically 
known.  This  not  only  strengthens  the  structure  at  these  two 
functional  points  but,  by  adding  a  small  section  of  shadow,  it  tends 
to  break  up  the  surface,  Figure  127,  and  add  to  the  variety  of  enrich- 
ment. Figures  124  to  127  show  the  building  i)rocesses  connected 
with  this  interesting  and  constructive  addition. 

Figures  116  to  119  show  variations  of  the  preceding  figures  while 
Figures  120  to  123  introduce  the  appendages  to  preceding  figures. 
As  in  the  designing  of  all  appendages,  discussed  in  (1iai)ter  ^^  it  is 
the  designer's  intention  lo  balance  si)()ul  and  handle  to  avoid  a 
one-sided  or  top-heavy  apj)earance. 

One  of  the  principal  difficulties  that  confronts  the  amateur 
designer  is  the  failure  to  secure  variety  w  liile  retaining  unity.  This 
is  largely  due  to  a  lack  of  ideas  uj)on  the  subject  and  a  marked  lack 
of  systematic  develoj)ment  of  one  tlieni(\ 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  diagrain  in  the  lower  portion  of 
Plate  24.  '^Fhe  idea  is  to  start  with  sonic  simple  t'oriii  in  columns 
vK  B,  (\  /),  K,  l'\  V\v;\\vv  12S.  I^'igui-c  12!)  in!  i-odnces  ///v>  horizontal 
divisions.      Kule   2a.     Th(>   lilactc   ])oiiion    is    I  he   dominant    section. 


Unit  of 
Measurement 
for  Curves 
in  Outline 
Enrichment 


Accentuation 
of  Functional 
Parts  in  Clay 


Appendages 


80 


•  OUTLIME  EMRICHMEMT   OF  THE.  PKIMA.RY     I-\Av!)v5    IH   CLAY  • 
GOOD   COIi.'iTRUCTlVEDESlG.HlS   "A    FR-ElE.  AHO    AOEQUATlfL  E^ieODl  ME.MT    OF 
Am   idea  IH    AFOKM    PECUUA^SLY    APPI^OF'KIATe      TO  THE    IDEA   ITSE  LF  "  H  EC=,El_* 


FlC-MOf)  KiG.  103  FIG,\lO-      Fl&-\Vl  FlCi-nZ  FiG.  1\  3  p|G,.>\4.  FiG.US' 


-4. 
F16-  116- 


^■ 


p^lOi-llT  FI&-  ua  Fl&llO-  FICT12.0  FI&I7.\  rics-  IZ'2--  Ft&.li3- 

^>   -  A    SIMPLE    DEVICE-     f^QK.    POTTEK.V       QESiC-iNiNe,      COH5>5TC>   OF   A   SHEET     OF 
PAPEK     folded    oh   UrSEX-X    FIC    116--    ?»>Y    CUTTING    THE    OUTUME    OFOHE     SlOE  THE 
OPP'O'blTE     -SiDE   ^5      UKEvsi'SE.     FORM  ED  •   /K  TIM  TEMPLATE.    MA^T5E     FOKMEO  FT?Of~A 
"THE    PAPE(2    PATTETSM      AKO      UseO    To    TEST    "TKE.    COM  5TEOCTIOM  • 


Fltia-q-  FI&-   \7.5'  FI&-  l-Z-S'  Fig.-    I2.T> 

■COHiTI^DCTWE   EVOLUTIOH     OF    OUTHrtE.  EMRICHMEHT :  ACCEMTUATIOM    OF     THE.  T^>r-1    ArAt:>    FOQT- 


-^     FIG-  I'Z-fi- 


T 


JL   Jk    Jlk    JL    Jl 


A  B  ■  c-  n>  •  MO  HORL  D1V13IOM3 
r  ■   F         kOYV  '•        01VlJ\On5 


—        F1G1E9- 
TWO    HOK:\ZOrlTAL  SPACE. 
DlVl'SlOM-S   WITH  (.iPPEK 
5PACE     r>OMlrtAMT 

-^       FH=i-l30. 
TWO  HOteiZOHTAL  ^PACE 
DIVISIONS  WTH    LOWEK 
SPACE     OOH\HAMT 

TH52EE    VtOKlXOHTAL.-SPACE 
Division 5   WITH    CEMTEE 
5PACE    'DoniNAHT 


EHKICHnEHT  OF  THE     "SIMPLE  FolCMS    OH   LlHE-'w*     I5Y  COMBlHlNG   TA/O   PROCESSES: 
^YAR^flH&  THE  POSITION    AMDhUMBEKOF    THE    H01^\Z0HTAL  DiVi  5IOH5  d^CJLES  2A    AHDB)AHD 
2-R>i   SYSTEMATICALLY  VAfTflMC-.  THE  BASE  CIS  FOOT  WIDTHS    FKqmw"  TO  2"  BY  MEAHO    OF  THE. 
CONVEE:eiHG    LlrtE-5    'C"  •  THE  WIDTH   AHO      HEI&HT  OF  THE  PifiMAKY  MASS    ISCONSTAMT- 


Plate  24 


[81] 


Notice  the  change  in  outhnes  based  upon  this  division.  Figure  130 
raises  the  division  point  of  the  two  subdivisions  into  the  upper  half 
of  the  object.  This  brings  out  the  need  of  an  accented  foot  which  is, 
however,  not  of  sufficient  prominence  to  be  considered  as  a  horizontal 
spacing.  Figure  131  raises  the  horizontal  division  points,  again 
causing  the  introduction  of  a  larger  foot  and  now  qualifying  it  as  a 
division  of  the  whole  mass.  This  then  makes  our  design  a  three- 
division  pro})lem.  Rule  Sb,  and  places  it  under  the  restrictions  of 
Jlule  5e. 

The  feet  of  all  of  the  bowls  have  been  svstematicallv  decreased 
in  width  by  the  converging  lines  C-C  while  the  tops  have  been 
maintained  constant  in  width.  By  this  simple  diagram  an  infinite 
number  of  designs  may  be  formed  and  the  choice  of  selection  from  the 
series,  thoughtfully  exercised,  will  sui)ply  the  ideal  bowl,  ready 
to  be  translated  into  a  full  size  working  drawing.  It  is  not  the  idea, 
however,  to  guarantee  a  perfect  design  in  each  one  of  these  divisions 
as  that  would  be  practically  impossible,  but  we  have  systematically 
applied  a  method  of  determination  for  stimulating  the  imagination. 
A  series  of  articles  bv  F.  H.  Rhead  in  the  Keramic  Studio  first  sug- 
gested  the  system  of  development  by  means  of  graded  rectangles. 

Plate  25  shows  a  further  elaboration  of  the  succeeding  themes. 
The  candlestick  series.  Figures  132  to  13S,  introduces  two  or  three- 
space  division  problems  with  contour  turning  points  at  A,  Rule  5e, 
and  with  accented  or  eml)rvonic  feet  and  rims.  The  change  from 
the  purely  functional  and  unenriched  memlKM-  of  Figure  132  through 
the  series  shows  the  enrichment  changing  slightly  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  three  functional  parts:  the  base,  the  handle,  and  the  candle 
socket,      liule  .5(1. 

Figure  139  shows  a  series  of  illustrations  rei)resenting  variations 
for  containers.  'Vlw  first  figure  is  without  enrichment,  followed  by 
variations  of  the  outline  in  the  maniUM-  already  suggested. 

Figure  1  to  indicates  a  series  of  })()ur(M-s  with  the  least  nl tractive 
d(\sign  on  the  left  end.  This  unsatisfactory  design  is  found.  uj)()n 
analysis,  to  be  due  lo  cenl rally  i)laced  horizontal  division  violating 
l^ilc  2;i.  The  dcvsign  of  I  he  ai)j)endages  in  Ihis  series  will  again  be 
found  to  cont'onn  with  I  he  rules  in  C'ha])ler  \  .  '^I'lie  units  of  measure- 
iiHMil  I'oi"  I  he  cui'Ncs  in;i\'  be  readih'  asccrhiincd  from  observation. 


Systematic 
Development 
of  Outline 
Enrichment 
in  Clay 


Candlesticks 


Containers 


Pourers 


[82] 


OUT  LIME    EIUCICHMEHT    OF      THE.      t7K\t1ARY    MAsrb  IM    CLAX    WITH   METHODS  OF 

SECORIrtG.      VAK\ETY   • 


FIG  132.-  Fie.135-  no  1 34--  FKS.135  FIG  13e  FIG   15T-  F1&  JSS- 

UHE-MKICHE-O     CAMOLE  STICICC  Fife,    13)2  ")   V/ ITK    Sl><>      PoSS\e>l-E.  VAKlATlOMS 


..B^ 


<^=^ 


/p^ 


FOUR  VARIATIONS       OF    CONTAItlEFS  WITH    SLI&HT    CHANGE.    OF    7EOPORTIOM5 

FnG     139- 


..=-!^ 


■VA.R\ATlOKS 


OF      POOK-E.^  ^ATlTK    A"PPEKDA.&ES 
FIG.-  I4-0- 


tllWDMTW]'  iWlB  I  H  1 1  - 


FORMS  ^A•lTH  the:  S/M-IE -widths  FORH5  V/ITH    THE   3AME.  HE.1&HT 

BUT  VAKVIN&     IH     HEIGHT   ■  ^'^>T   VAV2VIHG    IIH   V/IDTH 


_Bil  H I  B  1 1 


FIGKI-      HOKiZOHTAL  Pn 


FIG-    14-2.       VEeriCAl-  PM 


FI&UR.E.'S  14-1        AnD\A-2.»LLU5TR.ATE:    A   METHOD   QF    SI'STEMATICALLTr 
0E5IGN1NG    A    SERIES     OF    FQ1?H5       -SIMILAR.    IN     OUTLINE.     T*.uT  VARY- 
ING-,  IN     THE     PROPORTlOrt.'S   OF  THEl    PI^IMAKV   MA55ELk5  •    ^ElLECTlGN 
OF  THU  MO-ST     PLEASlMC     OESKSM       'SHOULD     !5E     POLLOwe.D    B^/'     A 

FULL    sii-E  v/oRcinei    di^awhsg,* 


Plate  25 


[83  J      . 

Figure  141  is  useful  for  the  following  purpose.     It  is  desirable 
at  times  to  develop  a  number  of  similar  forms  for  a  set,  with  a  grad-     „.    .,    . 
ually   increasing   ratio   of   proportions,   either   in    height    or    width,     with  Varying 
Figure  141  shows  how  the  height  may  be  increased  while  maintaining     Primary 
a  common  width.     Notice  the  gradual  proportionate  increase  of  the     Masses 
height  of  the  neck  A-B  as  well  as  that  of  the  body.     The  line  X  is  of 
the   utmost  value   in   ascertaining   the  height  of   the   intermediate 
bowls.     The  eve  should  now  be  so  trained  that  the  height  of  the  neck 
A-B  on  the  last  bowl  can  be  readily  proportioned  by  eye  measurement 
to  that  of  the  first  bowl.     X  line  similar  to  A"  will  give  the  intermediate 
points. 

F'igure  14^2  varies  the  width  in  a  similar  manner.  Notice  the 
gradually  decreasing  distances  C-D-E-F,  the  spaces  for  which  may 
be  determined  by  the  eye. 

iNSTRUCTiox  shp:et 

Plate  26  suggests  the  sequential  progression  of  steps  leading  to  tlie  potter's 
working  drawing. 

SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)    Draw  the  primary  rectangle. 

(6)    Add  limits  oi  functional  parts:    liandle,  spout,  C(jver,  etc. 

(c)    Establish  unit  of  measurement  for  primary  rectangle  contour  curves. 

{d)  Design  contour  of  primary  mass  and  add  tlie  appendages  to  it,  observing 
the  rules  jiertaining  to  appendages  and  unit  of  measurement. 

(e)  Dimension  and  otherwise  pre])are  tlie  drawing  for  the  jjotter's  use.  This 
includes  tlic  i)lanniiig  of  a  working  drawing,  one-eighth  larger  in  all 
directions  tlian  the  preliminary  design,  to  allow  for  the  shrinkage  of 
the  clay  body.  The  wcjrking  drawing  should  also  l)e  in  })artial  sections 
to  show  the  construction  of  the  interior  of  the  ware. 

SUGGESTED    IMtOHLEM 

Design  a  teapot,  te.a  cadd.\',  and  cui)  sliowiiig   a    coininou   uiiit.\'  in  coutnur 
design.      (Plate  8£,) 

SUMMARY    OF    RUUES 

Rule   .1(1.      I'd'tn  of  one  (lcsi(ju  (liJfcriiKj  in  fiiiiclion  should  differ  in  appearance 
hnf   he   eo-ord niiit<(l    irilh    llie   entire  desn/ii. 

Rule  5e.      //(  cylindrieal  fornix  outline  curves  with  a  vertical  tenileiiei/  slionld 


[84] 


euLES    5D  AhD    5e     conToue  oe  outlime    cneicnntnT  •  claT' 

IhSTEUCTIOM     SHCEtT  • 


N^ 


(       ) 


-th^ 


-VK- 


-K- 


riGA-    THf     PEIHAET    MASS-        FIG  •  B  •  DIYIDCD   imo    FUnCTIOnAL   PA2T5' 


FIG  -C-   E5TABU5HnErHT  OFUH ITQF  MEASUREnEMTV-  C0MTOUJ^5 •  ETC 


FIC-r-D-  POTTEe'5    V/oe^lhG    "DRAWING    WITH     s    ADDED    TO 
ALLOW     PCiR      SHCiniCAGE      IM     FIEinCn  ■ 


Plate  26 


[85] 


have    their    turning     points-    or    units    of    measurement    in    accordance    with    the 
horizontal  divisions  of  Rules  2a  and  .2b. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  and  illustrate   the  rule  governing  the  change  in  the  appearance  of 

the  design  with  the  change  of  functional  service. 

2.  What  is  the  aesthetic  value  of  curves  in  outline  enrichment? 

3.  Correlate  the  rule  governing  the  unit  of  measurement  for  vertical  contour 

curves  with  the  rules  controlling  horizontal  divisions. 

4.  Show,  by  a  diagram,  the  method  of  systematically  varying  the  contours  of 

circular  forms:    (a)  by  changing  the  horizontal  divisions;  (6)  by  varying 
the  proportion  of  the  primary  mass. 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  accenting  the  functional  parts  in  clay  design. ■* 


('ourlc.iji  (if  Jiunrs  Mitlilccn  University 

Figure  14''2a. —  OiitliiH"  jind  Siirf;u-(^  I'liiridniKMit  \n  CoWci^c  Pottery 


[86] 


.CKiTLine.    EMF^lCHnCMT   OF  THE.    PElMA.K'T   M^3^E^)     OF     THE    t5A.5EI2.  METALS  • 

EHKICHMEMT       OF      EDGES     -     COKHCRIS  -    IMTEEME.DIATE     POIHT3  "   APPEmOAGES  ■ 

SEE    Platens    FOFS.    TEKMIHAl_C5Lirir:iOETAH_S. 


i 


D      ""^-N^xivi:) 


Fie  1A5  FIG,      14-4-  F=-tG,    14-5- 

ErifClCHMEHT      OF    EDCE-S       BV     CHW^FEKIMC-i     T^OUMOIHG    LA^PflHG. 


«^ 


J-TJT 


^ 


\ 


H 


q: 


Fie.l4-T 


F\<SIA-8- 


I'     \ 


F\&14-6-  /  X  Fie.     lA-Q- 

Ehl^lCHMEHT   OF    COKME-KS   &T    FlUMCi    AMD    SAWIi-Kr.iDtPEHOEMT  OtJTLINE  • 


FI&-  i-ri- 


F^K?.-  15"Z- 


PEMOAGC 


FI<S-   ISO- 


AVPEMnAGC 


fTHi^lCHMEHT  OF  COl^HEES  AhO  APPEMDAGES  1^^  BEMDING 
FI^EE    OoTLinE<S 


illii" 


RC-^-153  •.  HIMGE    VARlATIOnS     6HOWIHG    CLOSE   RELATIOM    T^ETWEE-M     IMTEJ2IOR. 
FurtCT\OHAl_     FEAT(j??.E5  ClS'-^ETS-  •iClSEWSeTC')  ArtD    OoTUME    EHeiCHMETIT-  THEV 
AEE   T^fPlCAL   E.yAMPLE5  OF    DePEMOEMT  OUTLiriES- 


FICt  .  154- 


EH^^icHriEMT  or 

HiTER.MED\ATE 
POINTS     irt    THE 

ouTunE--  — 


Fi6-  155 


Plate  27 


Chapter  VIII 


EXRICHMENT    OF    THE    CONTOURS    OR    OUTLINES    OF 
DESIGNS   IN   BASE   AND   PRECIOUS   METALS 

The  contours  of  clay  forms  are  generally  free  to  follow  the  curves 
and  take  the  direction  dictated  by  the  knowledge  and  taste  of  the 
designer.  Metal  outlines  are  more  restricted  in  this  respect.  Metal 
is  frequently  associated  with  service  and  consequently  its  design 
is  often  governed  by  its  intended  use.  For  example,  if  we  were  to 
design  a  metal  drawer  pull  for  a  buffet,  it  would  have  to  be  considered 
in  relation  to  the  character  and  shape  of  the  buffet.  Again,  the 
screws  with  which  it  is  attached  to  the  buffet  would  influence  its 
outline  design.     It  is,  in  other  words,  a  dependent  outline. 

To  distinguish  between  an  unrestricted  outline  and  one  bound 
by  other  considerations  we  will  term  the  restricted  outline  a  dependent 
outline,  for  its  enrichment  must  be  related  to  other  forms  either 
within  or  without  its  surface.  A  free  outline  on  the  other  hand  is  one 
in  which  the  designer  is  free  to  use  his  ideas  unrestricted  bv  anv  otlnn- 
outside  consideration,  except  service  and  design  consistent  with  the 
material. 

In  order  to  em])liasize  the  nature  of  a  dependent  outline  we  have 
Rule  .5f.  Dependent  outline  enrie/iment  sJiould  he  relufed  to  essential 
parts  of  a  design  and  ififtuenced  by  their  forms  and  functions;  if  must 
fje  consistent  icith  the  idea  of  the  sufjject. 

AVc  will  start  with  the  simplest  form  of  outline  enrichment  of 
base  metals,  the  decoration  of  an  edge.  It  is  coiiliiiry  lo  the  laws  of 
service  to  leave  sharp  edges  on  articles  intenrled  for  intimate  house- 
hold use,  excej)t  where  cutting  edges  are  i('(|nii"ed.  The  I'ounding 
of  sharp  edges  is  likewise  dictated  by  the  law>  of  be.iiitw  The 
transition  from  one  j)I;ine  surface  lo  anotlxT  is  assisted  by  a  I'ounded 
edge,  as  the  eye  Inkes  kindly  to  (he  >ot'lened  pl.iy  of  light  and  shade. 

This  gives  u.>  t  he  >imi)lest  form  of  enii*  linieni  the  beveled,  cham- 
fered, or  rounded  edge,  Figures  14.3  and  li]:,  Plate  *-27.     The  rim  of  a 

[87] 


Enrichment 
of  the  Base 
Metals  — 
Iron,  Copper, 
Brass,  Bronze 


Free  and 

Dependent 

Outlines 


Enrichment 
of  Edges 


[88 


Enrichment 
of  Functional 
Parts 


Enrichment 
of  Comers 


Enrichment 

of 

Appendages 


thill  18-gaiige  plate  is  likewise  improved  and  strengthened  l>y  lapping 
the  edge  as  shown  in  Figure  145,  giving  the  rounded  effect  shown  in 
Figure  144. 

There  are  six  inij)()rlant  functional  parts  with  which  we  are 
brought  into  common  contact  in  industrial  design  of  base  metals. 
There  are  manv  more,  but  these  are  the  most  common  and  con- 
sequent ly  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  designer  as  design 
centers.  These  parts  are  itemized  as  follows:  (1)  Corners,  ('2)  Ap- 
pendages, (3)  Intermediate  Points,  (4)  Terminals,  (5)  Links, 
(6)  Details.  As  the  decorative  treatment  of  each  part  varies  with 
the  functional  duty.  Rule  5d,  separate  treatment  and  consideration 
of  each  part  will  be  necessary. 

Corners,  as  extreme  turning  points  of  a  design,  are  often  found 
convenient  for  the  location  of  screw  holes,  rivets,  etc.  These  impor- 
tant construction  elements  become  prominent  functional  parts  of  the 
design  and  by  custom  and  the  laws  of  design.  Rule  5d,  they  are 
capable  of  receiving  outline  enrichment.  But  the  contour  of  the 
corner  must  be  related  to  the  screws  or  rivets,  particularly  if  they  are 
near  the  edge,  hence  our  outline  becomes  a  dependent  outline  and  as 
such  must  })e  related  to  the  rivets  or  screws  by  Rule  .5f. 

Figures  146  to  149  show  various  arrangements  of  this  type  of 
design.  The  unity  of  the  design  is  not  lost,  and  the  functional  parts 
are  enriched  by  contours  related  to  the  elements  of  service  (rivets). 
Figure  153  shows  another  but  slightly  modified  example  of  the  same 
laws  applied  to  hinge  construction.  The  enriched  outline  in  this 
case  is  closely  associated  with  the  holes  in  the  hinge.  The  hinges 
in  turn  nuist  be  related  to  the  object  for  which  they  are  designed. 
Figure  150  gives  a  common  example  of  corner  enrichment  by  means 
of  varying  the  edge  at  the  corners,  i.e.,  by  rounding  the  tray  corners. 

As  appendages  have  distinct  functional  duties  their  design  may 
vary  as  the  design  of  the  arm  of  the  human  figure  differs  from  the 
head.  Yet,  as  parts  of  the  same  body,  they  must  fit  the  shape  of  the 
o})iect  to  which  tliev  are  attached.  The  candle  holder  and  handle  as 
appendages  in  Figure  150  are  designed  in  sympathetic  relation  by 
means  of  tangential  and  similar  curves  sufficiently  varied  to  give  the 
eye  a  feeling  of  variety  in  the  design.  The  novel  single  flower 
holders,  Figures  151  and  152,  with  the  glass  test  tube  acting  as  a 


[89] 


container  show  other  possible  forms  of  the  appendage  design.  The 
first  is  informal  while  the  second  is  formal,  but  both  adhere  to  the 
first  simple  rules  of  appendage  design.     Rule  4a,  etc. 

The  enrichment  of  center  or  intermediate  points  should  ])e  handled 
with  great  care  and  with  a  definite  reason.  Careless  handling  may 
cause  the  design  to  lack  unity.  Figures  154  and  155  show  a  simple 
twist  as  enrichment.  The  serviceable  reason  for  this  is  to  obtain  a 
grip  at  the  point  of  the  twist.     Again,  it  varies  the  character  of  the 


Enrichment 
of  Inter- 
mediate 
Points 


FicuHE  l.>()a. —  Candlestick,  Reiidcivd  hy  E.  R. 

straight  edges  and  adds  interest  witlioiil  loss  of  compactness  or  unity. 
If  one  is  desirous  of  widening  a  vertical  oi'  lioii/oiilal  I'od.  IIummumcIi- 
ment  made  by  welding  a  number  of  small  rods  together  willi  a  spread- 
ing twist  gives  a  pleasing  and  serviceable  handle.     Figure  15(). 

As  the  })ul)lic  demands  a  Iiaj)])y  ending  to  a  slory  or  a  l)lay,  so  does 
the  eye  demand  a  well-designed  ending  lo  a  design.     The  pari   ihat 
terminal  enrichnuMil    |)lays  in   indnsliial  design  is,  therefore,   to  say     Enrichment 
llic    least ,    imporlaiil     lo    ns    as    designei's.      I'^igiire    157    illustrates     of  Terminals 
terminals  in  Ihin  melal  and  is  shown  l)\'  coui-Icsn-  of  the  School  Arts 


[90] 


OUTLltiE.  EtlElCHMEMT  OF  THE.  PT^inAR^  MA-CvS    IH  THE     BA.5EJS  ME.TALS  •  THE. 
EMKlCHnEHT    OF     TE.K.MlMAl_S  ,  UH»C5^   AHD     DE.TAIL5  •  •  FKE-t' OUTLIHEC)  - 


■;.C;^^^  -~->mi'"-> 

,  ,., 

iff 

'1    j- 

am'  m^m 

mi 

1  "^1 

m 

i 

S  "^  mg 

1  ^1 

aSa^M'I'^S 

Q) 


O 


I      \ 


EXPAMDinc-1  Ann   bemo- 

IHG-       FIG-  lOO'  1=1GI57  ■  SAYVIHG  AND     FlUHG. 


FIG-  IS'S-     nOMIHG 


HOTE.:   FOTt    TO'RMlH& 
SEE.      PLATE  21 


FORMS      OF     TE-T^MIHAL      EHl^lCHME-MT 


FIG -163  IJEMOIH^ 


DETA\\_ 


•THE     lOMlC     VOLUTE    OK 
CUT2VE.    OF      BEAOTV 
A     TEK.MIM/VL     Ci_»K-VE   OF- 
EXTREME-     ir-nP=ORTA^t-tCE. 


H&-I6I 

•BEMDIMG 
TWISTING 
•  V/ELDiriG 
•EXPAttDltHG 


THE  ADAPTED 
GREEIC 
■5CK.OLL  ' 


DETA>L 


APPEnOA.GE. 


FI&162    T5EMDItiG 


LIHIC^  AMDTEKMI- 
HAL  HOOC  CueVES 
BEHDlHG  "KAlSlrte.- 
CASTIrtG-FIGM65 


Plate  28 


[91] 


Magazine  from  one  of  the  articles  by  Mr.  Augustus  Rose.  The  out- 
hnes  are  in  part  dependent  in  character,  controlled  by  rivets.  Notice 
the  change  of  curve  as  the  function  changes  from  the  dependent 
curve  of  the  rivet  area  to  i\\e  free  outline  of  the  handle  and  again  from 
the  handle  to  the  cutting  blade;  a  functional  change  of  marked 
character,  but  in  thorough  unity  with  the  entire  design.  It  is  again 
emphasized  that  whether  the  design  possesses  a  free  or  a  dependent 
outline,  or  a  combination  of  l^otli  types,  all  parts  of  the  design  nuist 
be  held  together  l)y  entire  unity.  The  rivets  are  occasionally  placed 
toward  the  edge  and  a  domed  boss  is  used  to  accent  the  center  as  is 
shown  in  Figure  158. 


Free  and 
Dependent 
Contour 
Enrichment 


The   Ioxic   Volute 

As  the  Curve  of  Force  was  a  valuable  curve  in  wood  construction, 
so  we  find  it  an  equally  valuable  curve  for  wrought  metal.  Its 
recurrence  again  and  again  in  industrial  design  leads  us  to  appreciate 
its  value  in  the  arts.  It  is  the  Ionic  volute  handed  down  to  us  in  its 
present  form  from  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  who  developed  it  to  a  high 
state  of  perfection. 

While  its  geometric  development  is  a  tedious  process,  it  may  be 
easily  constructed  for  practical  purj^oses  by  the  following  method. 
In  Figure  159,  P  represents  a  small  cylinder  of  wood,  possibly  a 
dowel.  A  strong  piece  of  thread,  or  fine  wire,  is  wrapped  around  the 
base  of  the  dowel  a  number  of  times  and  a  loop  is  formed  in  the  free 
end.  A  pencil  with  a  sharp  point  is  inserted  in  the  loop  and  the 
pencil  and  dowel  are  placed  together  on  a  sheet  of  paper.  As  the 
thread  unwinds  from  the  dowel  the  point  of  the  pencil  ^^  ill  describe 
a  volute  which  mav  be  devel()])ed  indefinitelv.  It  will  l)e  noticed 
that  no  corresponding  parts  of  the  curve  are  concentric  and  it  thus 
has  constant  varietv.  It  has  been  termed  the  Curve  of  Beauty 
and  is  found  in  nature  in  the  wonderfully  designed  shell  of  the 
nautilus. 

It  is  advisable  to  form  several  temi)latcs  for  the  volute  out  of  bent 
wrought  iron,  of  diiriM-eiil  sizes,  and  to  i)ractice  drawing  I  lie  curve 
many  times  lo  accustom  llic  liaiid  and  the  eye  to  its  changes  of  direc- 
tion, "^rhe  "eye"  or  cenler  j)<)rti()n  is  sometimes  terminated  by 
tiiinning  and  ex})anding  in  I  he  manner  shown  in  I'igure  !(>(). 


Terminal 
Enrichment 
in  Wrought 
Metal 


Curve  of 
Beauty 


[9^1] 


•  OUTLIME.    EMI^lCHMEnrOF   THE:      PRIMARY  MASS    IH    FKECIOU 3  METALS*     SILVER* 
•A  DEPErtDEHT  OOTLIME    RELATED  TO  AMD  EHCL05IHGt  A  5E1-1 1- PRECIOUS      5TOT1E.  * 

CA^OCKOM      AKD    CUSHION   COT     -STOnES 

F1C-.-I66  FI&-167-  n&    163-  Fl&lC)©-  FlC^TO 


FIG  115- 


FlC.ni 


FIG   >72- 


FlG  •  ITS- 


FIG-    174- 


j^3: 


FIG -176-  FIG. -177-  FlG-n8-  F1C3.- 179 - 

riOTF    THE  COH7ROLLIHG    IKFLDErtCE    OF    THE  LOMG.    A?^>5    OF     S70Ha  n&-l60' 


F1&   131-  FIG.     182.-  FIG    163- 

ADEPenDEMT     OU7LIHE   SEEH   IH    5IDE  YlE^^r-•  M07E   RISE  TO  OUT  HME  OF  "STOME 

MOTIVES        FOR.         c->«.)TurHE.  EH'^lCrir-IEMT  WITH  COHMKUCTIOrt 

\l    M    Ml   ^  <ih  O   ^ 


FIG    185 


Fl<=.   184- 


APRUCATION  OF 
ETtJSicHMEHT  TCI 
OUTUHEL 


FIG  186 


FIGi    \8T- 


FIG     lft& 


FT5EE        CX-ITUMES 


AP'P^EHDA<^E. 


ACCEHTEr>     _ 
OUTUME. 


Fie  i&a 


///        «<s.\  ACCENTED 
Fl6- 190- 


Fie-  191 


Plate  21) 


[93 


One  form  of  application  of  the  volute  is  shown  in  the  terminal 
points  of  the  candlestick  in  Figure  161.  It  is  here  shown  combined 
with  the  second  volute  in  the  form  of  a  reverse  curve.  In  Figure  162, 
it  has  been  combined  with  a  smaller  but  reversed  volute  at  the  upper 
end.  The  entire  and  combined  curv<e  is  commonlv  known  as  a 
Greek  Scroll.  In  Figure  163  the  Greek  Scroll  has  been  combined 
with  the  reverse  curve  of  Figure  161  to  form  a  portion  of  the  bracket. 
In  this  figure  we  find  the  familiar  curve  of  force  faithfully  serving  its 
function  as  a  supporting  member  for  the  top  portion  of  the  bracket. 

A  link  is  a  convenient  filler  in  connecting  parts  of  a  right  angle. 
It  likewise  serves  as  a  brace  in  connecting  several  disconnected  parts 
and  is  useful  in  maintaining  the  unity  of  a  design.  Figure  164  shows 
a  common  form  of  link  with  its  ends  thinned  and  expanded  as  shown 
in  Figure  160.  This  construction  may,  however,  be  disregarded  as  it 
is  technically  quite  difficult  to  accomplish. 

Details  are  the  smaller  portions  of  a  design  and  are  similar  to  the 
trimmings  and  minor  brackets  of  a  building  in  relative  importance. 
They  enter  to  a  considerable  extent  into  wrought  metal  grille  design, 
and  are  generally  formed  of  the  link,  Greek  scroll,  or  the  Ionic  volute, 
so  as  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  other  parts  of  the  design  outline. 
Rule  of.     Their  presence  and  use  may  be  readily  detected  on  Plate  "iS. 

Rule  5g.  A  curve  should  join  a  straigJit  line  wifJi  either  a  tangential 
or  rigid  angle  junction. 

As  we  are  now  familiar  willi  conlinuitv  in  wood  moulding  curves 
we  should  feel,  in  reviewing  (he  figures  in  this  chapter,  the  value  of 
flowing  continuity  and  tangential  junclioii  jxtiiils  (  \\\\\v  .>g)  necessary 
in  wrought  metal  enrichment.  'V\\v  curves  that  we  have  considered 
are  adapted  to  the  materials  and  a  comparat i\'ely  large  and  new  field 
of  design  is  opened  to  the  designer  through  a  combination  of  curves 
mentioned.  IMate  30  is  self-exi)lanalory  and  brings  out  the  general 
aj)plication  of  the  foregoing  principles  as  a])plie(l  to  cast  bronze 
hardware.  It  is  inter(\sting  to  notice  the  change  of  ein-ichnient 
])aralleling  Lhe  eliange  of  funclion  as  outlined  in  linle  .kI. 


Greek 
Scroll 


Enrichment 
of  Links 


Enrichment 
of  Details 


Summary  of 

Wrought 

Metal 

Free  Outline 

Enrichment 


Otttlixe  ExinciiMEXP  ok  PiiEcious  ^Metals 


Outline 


Little  has  been   wi'illen   i-egar<hng  the  designing  of   jewelry.      As     Enrichment 
can  be  readily  seen,  a  senii-pi"ecious  stone  is  the  conti-olling  factor     of  Silver 


[94] 


^^4«!a»^t  _^^»^^^ 


GROUP  OF  THREE  OBJECTS 
SHOWING  ENRICHMENT  OF  CORNER 
NOTE  ENRICHMENT  OF  INTER- 
MEDIATE POINTS   OF  KNOCKER 


SIX  OBJECTS 
SHOWING 
TERMINAL  OUT- 
LINE ENRICHMENT 


FOUR   OBJECTS 
SHOWING  ACCENTED 
OUTLINE  ENRICHMENT 


TWO   OBJECTS 
SHOWING   OUTLINE 
ENRICHMENT  OF 
INTERMEDIATE 
POINT  (CENTER) 


\€m 


VI  s^ 


^7    V 


Tl) 


'j 


J  ■^■'^J 


Plate  30 


Courtesy  nf  P.  and  F.  Corbin 


[95] 


in  the  major  portion  of  the  designs  with  silver  as  a  background. 
Any  enrichment  merely  accentuates  the  beauty  of  the  setting.  This 
statement  would  lead  us  to  consider  the  outline  as  dependent  in 
character  and  thoroughly  related  to  the  stone.  It  is  necessary  then 
to  take  the  stone  as  a  point  of  departure.  The  standard  stone  cut- 
tings used  in  simple  jewelry  are  shown  in  Figures  166  to  170.  The 
first  three  and  the  last  are  cabochon  cut,  elliptical  in  contour  with 
flat  bottoms.     The  long  axes  have  been  drawn  in  each  instance. 

With  Figures  171  to  174  we  begin  to  see  the  close  relation  between 
the  stone  and  its  enclosing  form.  Rule  of.  A  longer  major  axis 
in  the  stone  calls  for  an  increased  length  in  the  corresponding  axis 
of  the  silver  foundation  or  background.  It  is  really  a  re-echo  of 
the  proportions  of  the  primary  mass  of  the  stone  in  the  mass  of  the 
silver.  It  is  well  for  the  beginner  to  make  the  axis  of  the  stone  and 
the  silver  blank  coincide  and  to  use  this  long  axis  as  a  basis  for 
future  enrichment.  In  a  vertical  primary  mass,  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  Figure  180,  it  is  better  design  to  place  the  stone  a  short 
distance  above  the  geometric  center  of  the  mass  as  it  insures  a  sense 
of  stability  and  balance.  A  stone  when  })lactHl  toward  the  bottom 
of  a  design  of  this  nature  is  inclined  to  give  a  feeling  of  ''settling 
down"  or  lost  balance. 

Figure  17()  varies  the  design  shown  in  Figure  171.  The  two 
circles  related  to  the  stone  are  connected  by  four  silver  grains  or  balls. 
Figure  177  shows  an  attemj)t  to  enrich  the  contour  of  the  silver, 
but  there  is  a  resulliug  tendency  to  detract  from  the  simplicity  of 
the  unbroken  outline  aud,  as  a  resuU,  little  is  gained  by  its  attem])ted 
enrichment.  Figures  1  7S  and  179  show  a  belter  t'onii  of  (Mn-ichuieiil 
bv  accenlualiiig  the  (nitline.  This  iiia\-  l)e  nccoinplished  either  by 
(Migraving  a  single  line  paralleling  the  contour  ov  by  soldering  a  thin 
wii'e  around  t  he  outline. 

Whil(>  the  top  view  of  an  ai'l  iclc  of  jewelry  iiiay  li;i\-e  been  earefnll\- 
designed  the  side  \-ie\v  in  most  inslnnees  is  lol.-illy  neglected.  Tli(> 
side  view  shonid  show  .-i  slendx"  gi-adnalion  from  llie  surface  of  I  he 
silver  to  (he  onlline  of  the  stone.  This  j)re\<iils  \\\c  slone  fi-oin 
bnlging  from  the  surfnee  like  ;i  sndden  .-ind  ninisn;il  gi-owih.  Doming, 
small  wedges  of  siUci-,  or  a  Iwisl  aionnd  I  lie  bezel  may  accoin])lish 
this  as  can  be  readiK-  secMi  in  i<Mgni-es  ISl.  IS^i.  and  1S;>. 


Stones 
and  Their 
Cuttings 


Relation  of 
Stone  to 
Contour 


Need  of 
Top  and 
Side  Views 


[96] 


eULe5    5D- 5t  5F-5S  COriTOUe  OE  OUTLIhE   eMeiCMnEriT  -CLAY     MeiAL- 

insTEucTion    sheet  • 


APPEHDAGtE 


Linic 


7Z\ 


peiMAev 

MA55 


\ 


J 


TICtA-    the-    PEinA\2Y  RECTAhGLE.       ?ICtB-   FUnCUOMAL    "DiYI5IOn5 


noTf. 

TH15  SHEET    ILLUSTRATES 

THE    DESlC-iN  Pt^OCESSES    OF 
A  LAMP 

ALLCLAVPA^TS    "SHOULD 
BE  TRANSLATED  IMTO    A 
POTTERS  DeAWIHG  • 


o   o 
O 


FICt  •  C  •  TWO    "DESIGMS   TQ>^ 
COHTOUP     Elie^CHnEhT  • 


FICn-"D-    FIMAL    SELECTIOM    Feon 
"C"   DEVELOPED    ITITO  WOeKIMCi    D2AWin6' 


Plate  31 


[97 


While  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  simplicity  of  outline, 
certain  well  regulated  forms  of  enrichment  may  be  added  to  the 
contour  and  enhance  the  beautv  of  the  stone.  Such  motives  with 
constructive  steps  are  shown  in  P^igure  184  and  their  application  in 
Figures  185  to  188.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  enrichment  invar- 
iably leads  up  to  the  stone  which  is  the  center  of  interest  in  the  design. 
The  ornament  is  likewise  based  upon  the  prominent  axes  of  the  stone. 

Figures  189,  190,  and  191  are  types  of  beaten  and  raised  silver 
work  and  show  characteristic  forms  in  silver,  with  two  examples  of 
accented  outline  enrichment.  As  thev  are  curvilinear  forms,  their 
design  is  similar  in  many  ways  to  clay  forms  of  similar  proportions 
and  uses. 


Motives 
for  Outline 
Enrichment 
in  Silver 


Free  Outline 
Enrichment 
in  Silver 


INSTRUCTION    SHEET 

Plate  31  .shows  the  design  steps  necessary  to  the  evolution  of  a  hinip  in  two 
materials.      A  full  size  working  drawing  should  follow  Figure  U. 

SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)   Draw  the  unenriehed  j)riinary  mass. 

(6)  For  dependent  contours,  locate  the  elements  of  service  within  the  primary 
mass.  This  may  be  interpreted  to  mean  rivets,  screw  holes,  semi-precious 
stones,  etc. 

(p)  Deter'minc  upon  the  portion  of  the  contours  to  be  enriched,  gaug<'d  by  its 
need  for  grace,  lightness,  and  variety.  This  enrichment  is  j)referal>ly 
concentrated  at  the  following  points:  edges,  corners,  ai)])endages,  inter- 
mediate points,  terminals,  links,  and  details.  These  points  may  be  com- 
bine<l  provided  the  result  does  not  violate  the  simjilicity  of  the  structural 
lines. 

(d)  Draw  the  enrichment  in  the  {)redetermin('d  area,  causing  it  to  be  in  harmony 
with  such  interior  functional  parts  as  screw  holes,  rivets,  senn-])recious 
stones,  etc.      I'tilize  suggested  curves. 

(c)  Review  all  of  the  contour  curves  added  to  I  lie  design.  Are  they  feeble 
compass  curves  or  do  they  lia\c  tlic  <'liara<tc'r  of  long  sweeping  curves 
with  short  "snai)py"  turns  for  variety.^ 

(/)  Test  the  entire  design  for  unity.  Does  the  eye  move  smootiily  tiirough 
all  parts  of  the  contour.^  Does  the  design  "hold  together".^  .\re  all 
links  and  appendages  joined  to  tlic  i)rimary  mass  in  a  graceful  tangential 
inaniicr)' 

(</)  Dimension,  add  additional  \  icws,  and  details,  if  necessary,  and  otherwise 
prepare  the  drawing  for  shop  use. 


SUr.r.ESTED    P!?niU,EMS 

Design  an  electric  table  lamp  with  s<|uare  copjx'r  rod  as  a  suj)|)ort,  fe<'t.  and 
coi)j»er  shade. 

Design  a  hinge  for  a  cedar  chest. 


[98] 


SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Rule  5f.  Dependent  outline  enrichment  should  be  related  to  essential  parts  of 
a  design  and  influenced  by  their  forms  and  functions;  it  must  be  consistent  with 
the  idea  of  the  subject. 

Rule  5g.  .4  curve  should  join  a  straight  line  with  either  a  tangential  or  right 
angle  junction. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Contrast  contour  enrichment  of  wood,  clay,  and  metal. 

2.  Define  free  and  dependent  outline  in  contour  enrichment  of  base   metal. 

3.  Describe  and  explain  the  use  of  the  Ionic  volute  in  contour  enrichment 

of  metal. 

4.  Define  and  present  illustrations  of  contour  enrichment  designed  for  edges, 

corners,    appendages,    intermediate    points,    terminals,    links,    and    other 
details  in  base  metal. 

5.  Define  and  illustrate  free  and  dependent   contour   enrichment    of   precious 

metal. 


Figure  190a. —  Union  of  Outline  Enrichment  on  Clay  and  Metal 


Chapter  IX 


SURFACE   EXRICH]\IENT  OF  SMALL  PRIMARY 

MASSES  IN   WOOD 


With  this  chapter  we  enter  upon  a  consideration  of  the  third  and 
hist  major  division  of  Industrial  Arts  Design,  that  of  Surface  Enrich- 
ment. 

We  have  considered  in  previous  chapters  the  subject  of  contour 
or  outhne  enrichment.  Now  consider  for  a  moment  the  fact  that 
articles  such  as  a  square  box,  or  tile,  are  not  suited  to  outline  enrich- 
ment, yet  they  have  large,  flat,  and  rather  monotonous  surfaces 
cai)al)le  of  decoration.  It  is  readily  seen  that  such  surfaces  will 
admit  of  further  elaboration  which  we  will  distinguish  from  contour 
enrichment  by  using  the  term  Surface  Enrichment.  As  in  contour 
enrichment,  so  in  surface  enrichment,  the  added  element  of  design 
not  only  increases  the  beauty  of  the  object  but  it  likewise,  if  properly 
applied,  gives  apparent  added  strength  to  the  structure. 

Rule  Ga.     Surfaces  to  be  enriched  m usf  adm if  of  cnriclnnenf. 

Strictlv  utilitarian  articles  should  not  be  ornamented  bv  surface 
enrichment.  As  an  example,  a  wooden  mixing  spoon,  bowl,  or  wooden 
knife  handle  should  not  be  enriched  by  carving,  as  the  carving  would 
interfere  with  the  proper  cleansing  of  the  article.  A  surface  exposed 
to  considerable  wear  should  nol  be  enriched.  ()l)jecls  not  strictlv 
in  (lie  utilitarian  class,  such  as  a  paj)er  knife,  book  stall,  envelope 
holder,  or  lil)rary  table  may  be  a])proj)riately  enricli(Ml  in  an  unosten- 
tatious manner  so  that  tliey  will  harmonize  with  their  surroundings. 
iiiil  the  enrichment  should  first  be  placed  upon  the  surface  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  functional  use  of  the  article 
for  service.  Large  projections  upon  the  back  of  a  chair  oi-  nj)()n  the 
handle  of  a  paper  cutter  are  unpleasant  and  interfere  with  intended 
uses. 


Nature  and 
Need  of 
Surface 
Enrichment 


When  and 
Where  to 
Enrich  a 
Surface 


!)!) 


[100] 


[101 


Rule  6b.  Surface  enrichment  must  be  related  to  the  structural 
contours  but  must  not  obscure  the  actual  structure. 

Careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  often-mentioned  law 
that  the  surface  enrichment  must  be  thoroughly  related  to  structure 
and  contour  but  not  so  as  to  obscure  either.  We  must  keep  in  mind 
the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  support  the  structure,  not  to  cover 
it  up  by  related  ornament,  as  in  Figure  191a. 

Most  critics  of  industrial  design  complain  of  an  overwhelming 
desire  upon  the  part  of  the  designer  to  over-decorate  the  structure. 
Surface  enrichment  runs  wild  over  steam  radiators,  stoves,  and 
wooden  rocking  chairs.  Reserve  is  the  watchword  recommended  as 
of  extreme  importance.  The  illustrations  in  this  chapter  are  re- 
stricted to  a  limited  range  of  design  motives  for  the  express  })ur})ose 
of  simplifying  the  number  of  recommended  methods. 

Rule  Gc.      The  treatment  must  be  appropriate  to  the  material . 

The  close-fibered  woods  with  smooth,  even  textures  are  capa])le 
of  more  delicate  enrichment  than  woods  of  coarser  grain.  Small 
articles  are  generally  seen  from  a  close  range  and  should,  therefore, 
be  ornamented  with  finer  decoration  than  large  articles,  such  as 
a  piece  of  furniture  that  is  to  be  seen  from  a  distance.  The  latter 
should  have  surface  enrichment  of  sufficient  boldness  to  *'carrv" 
or  to  be  distinct  from  a  distant  ])oint.  Furthermore  the  enrichment 
should  not  have  a  "stuck  on"  appearance,  but  be  an  integral  part  of 
the  original  mass. 

There  are  three  distinct  means  of  ornamenting  wood:  (1)  inlay- 
ing, depending  for  interest  upon  the  difference  in  value  and  hue  of  lh(^ 
different  inlaying  woods  used;  ('-2)  carved  enrichment,  depending 
uj)on  line  and  mass  for  its  beauty  and  made  visil)l(>  l)y  conlraslsof 
light  and  shade;  (3)  painling  or  staining  of  lluvsurface  with  t  iic  iiilcresi 
dej)endent  upon  I  lie  colors  or  stains  and  llieir  relalion  to  eacli  oilier 
and  to  Ihe  hue  of  the  wood.  It  has  been  deemed  wise  to  consider  the 
first  two  lypes  in  the  i)resenl  chapter,  and  leave  the  last  type  for 
later  consideral  ion.  In  Chaj)ters  \\\  Wl.and  X\  II.  accent  nat  ion 
has  V)een  j)laced  on  wood  coloring.  T\\c  designer  is  advised  to  read 
those  chaptcM's  before  atlemj)ting  to  stain  or  color  his  pi-obleni. 

Treating  surface  enrichnieni  in  its  listc^l  order  we  find  that  inlay- 
ing is  one  of  t  he  most  coinnioii  and  best  foi'nis  of  enrichnieni  for  wood 


Conservative 
Use  of 
Ornament 


Relation  of 
Enrichment 
to  Material 


Appropriate 
Methods  of 
Surface 
Enrichment 
for  Wood 


Inlaying 


[  102] 


•  STRAIGHT  LIME 
Sui^FACE  ErtKlcHMeMT    OF"     A  5t^ALL.    PrIMAKV  MaSO  IM  WOOO    • 

'  BAMDS     AMO     BOR.OE.es  ' 
•   FOR.  iriUA^lMC*   -   CAKVlMGt    •    S-rA.iri  l^^e^  • 
AGROUPOF  e>AMD5     WITH    HOKlTLOriTAU  OR  "  OriWAROVHYTHMlC  nOVEMEHT  • 


•   SIMG»LE. 

&AMD  • 

^^^^ 

•  DOUBLE 

BAno  • 

-  IKU-'LtL 

BAM  D   • 
•  ACCEMTE.D  • 



Bi^l^l  ^H  ^^1 

^^1 1^1 1 

^^^^H  ^^1  ^^H^B  IH 

^Hl   ^H  ^B 

•  SlhGLE.  BAHD 

?75 

'TRIPLE    BAMO- ACCEJ-ITEO 
FI&-I9Z      • 

*  BOF^DE.R.5  » 


■■■■■■■■■■I 

BORDER  REPETlTlOli    WITHOUT  ACCEMT  • -BORDER. vvithOUT  ACCEMT  •  inTRo- 
FI&-I33-  DUCiriG    EATtO-        F=iei-I94- 


III 


HilHIlBlilHHllfllB 


•BORDER  REPETITIOM  •  ACCEMTEO-  ♦BORDER.    ACCE.M-rE.O  •     r=ie,  .I9Q 

Fl  0,-195 


iJSJSr  Jcngcm 


FIG- 107-       ACCEMTED      BOROER:^  (CSREEO 


FiO-196    •     ACCEMTEO   AMD  BALANCED     E.ORDE-R'3 
ISARACEMIC) 


Plate  32 


[103] 

work.     As    inlaying    readil}^    adapts    itself    to    bands    and    borders, 

emphasis  is  placed  upon  them. 

Rule  6i.  Inlayed  enriclmient  should  never  form  strong  or  glaring 
contrasts  loith  the  parent  surface. 

Two  conspicuous  errors  are  often  associated  w^ith  inlaid  designs. 
The  first  is  the  use  of  woods  affording  a  glaring  contrast  with  that  of 
the  project.  Figure  209,  Page  106.  The  right  contrast  of  value  is  Errors  in 
established  when  the  inlay  seems  neither  to  rise  from  the  surface  nor  Wood  Inlay 
sink  through  it.  It  should  remain  on  the  surface  of  the  plane  to  be 
enriched,  for  it  is  surface  enrichment.  Figures  210,  211,  and  212  are 
illustrative  of  pleasing  contrasts. 

The  second  specific  glaring  error  is  the  use  of  unrelated  inlay. 
As  an  example,  an  Indian  club  is  created  by  glueing  many  vari-colored 
woods  around  a  central  core.  The  result  of  the  pattern  so  formed  has 
little  relation  to  the  structural  lines,  fails  entirely  to  support  them, 
and,  as  a  result,  should  be  discarded. 

Carving  is  difficult  for  the  average  beginner  in  wood  working 
design,  therefore  merely  the  simplest  forms  of  the  craft  are  suggested  Carving 
as  advisable.  Figure  205a.  If  an  elaborate  design  is  desired  (Figure 
205c),  it  should  be  first  drawn  in  outline  and  finally  modeled  in  relief 
by  Plastelene.  This  model  is  then  an  effective  guide  for  the  carver, 
supplementing  the  original  outline  drawing. 

Carving   may   be   roughly    divided    into   the   following   groups: 

(1)  high  relief  carving  similar  to  heads,  human  figures,  and  capitals;     Divisions  of 

(2)  low^  relief  carving  in  which  the  planes  have  been  flattened  to  a     Carving 
comparatively    short    distance   above    the   original    block   of   wood, 

such  as  panels,  which  are  good  examples  of  this  group;  (3)  pierced 
carving  where  the  background  has  been  entirely  cut  away  in  places, 
such  as  screens,  which  illustrate  this  type;  (4)  incised  carving  in  which 
the  design  has  been  depressed  bcloir  I  lie  surface  of  the  wood.  (leo- 
metric  chip  carving  is  a  representative  tyi)e  of  this  group.  There  are 
possible  variations  aud  combinations  of  lliese  groups. 

Rule  (ij.  Carved  surface  enrichment  should  hare  the  appearance  of 
belonging  to  the  parent  mass. 

The  central  governing  fJionght  in  all  carved  designs  is  to  show  an 
interesting  proportion  of  light  and  shade  couj)led  with  a  unity  between 
the  raised  i)()rtion  of  the  design  and  the  background.      If  (he  carv- 


[104] 


SURFACE    EMRlCHr^EMT  OF  SHALL  PRIMARY  MASSES   IH  WOOD    WITH 
BOROER-S    OF     CURVED    AMD   STRAIGHT   UHES  * 
•   FOR    IMLA^lMGi     -  CARVING    •  STAIHIMG 


FIG  •  199  •   A  -STRAIGHT    LIME  Urt  IT  12EPEATE.D 


Axis  OF  SYMMETRV 

< 

OR.  INCE.I»Tlve 


c 


^ 


AM     ACCEriTE.0    GKOUPELD  AMD    B/XLAtiCE-D  UMIT   WITH  TWO  FORMS  OF  EMRICHED 

APPLICATIOMS   TO   IH  LA^ 


F/6-20O-  THE  LEADIHG,     LIMES  Ol^    SICE-LETOM  OF  A.   CAE^ED   BORDER 
THE.    0(-JALlTlE5    OF  IMTEEESTlhC-.   FOI^Mi     FOR.  CLOTH  I HCf  LEAOIMG  L1HE5  OF  A  BoEOEJ^ 


HOTE  Curves 

PEVEI?5A  ETC 


/*> 


A  FORM  WITHOUT 
INTEREST 
R<5   20I  ■ 


AMOMOTOrtOUS        ADYMAniC  FQI?M        STKOMOi    OVMAMIC  FORf-IS  V^'TH  A 
FORM  •  WITH  evrfTHM  COMnON    ^HyTHMIC  MOVEMEMT 

nCiXOl.-  F/C-.    203-  F/CS     2.04- . 


FlG-IOS    THE  LEA01M6   LlrtES  OF  riGlOO    ASiX.    EHTtlCHED    O^  CLOTHED    8"<  IHTEEESTIMG 
FOena       SUCGEST-ED      BV     HA^TOeAu     nOTlvCJ.^  TMEMOVEMEMTIi  LIP'WARD  AMD  OtiWARD 


FIG    Z06    Two  VAKIAT10M5     OF  A  CAJ^vED  "OE-SIGM   WITH  A  "STROhG  OMWAKD  FEELING 


Plate  33 


10.5 


iiig  has  a  glued  on  appearance  it  becomes  mechanical  and  resembles  a 
stamped  or  machine-j)rodiiced  ornament. 

A  typical  carved  enrichment  is  carried  through  four  steps: 
(1)  the  design  is  transferred  to  the  wood  surface  by  means  of  carbon 
paper;  (2)  the  design  is  "set  in"  or  separated  from  the  ground  by 
means  of  a  grooved  chisel;  (3)  the  wood  is  cut  away  from  the  back 
of  the  design  by  a  process  of  grounding;  (4-)  the  leaves  and  flowers 
or  other  elements  of  the  design  are  modeled.  The  designer  should 
keep  these  processes  in  mind  when  developing  his  design. 

It  is  now  essential  to  find  the  extent  of  the  vocabulary  possible 
for  the  designer  of  surface  enrichment.  lie  has  three  large  sources 
of  information:  first,  geometric  forms  and  abstract  spots;  second, 
natural  organic  objects  such  as  flowers,  leaves,  animals,  etc.;  third, 
artificial  ol^jects,  pots,  jars,  ink  bottles,  and  other  similar  objects. 

He  may  assemble  or  group  these  objects  or  elements  for  future 
designs  into  four  typical  systems:  first,  bands  or  borders;  second, 
panels;  third,  free  ornament;  and  fourth,  the  diaper  or  all-over 
patterns. 

Designing  Bands  on  BoKDt:Ks 

Rule  Ch\.  Bands  and  borders  should  hare  a  consistent  lateral,  t/iat  is, 
onirard  movement. 

Rule  Ge.  Bands  and  Imrders  should  never  have  a  prominent  contrary 
motion,  opposed  to  the  main  forward  movement. 

Bands  are  particularly  suitable  for  inlaying.  They  are  composed 
of  straight  lines  arranged  in  some  orderly  and  siruclurnlly  related 
manner.  Thev  are  used  for  l)()rdering,  framing,  enclosing,  or  con- 
necting.  They  give  a  decided  onirard  molioii  which  lends  to  increase 
the  a})])arent  length  of  the  surface  to  which  liu\\-  are  aj)j)lie(I.  Kefcr- 
riiig  to  Plate  3*2,  Figure  MH,  we  find  ihi-ce  ly|)ical  l)ands,  .1,  />.  and  ('. 
It  is  ol"t("ii  the  custom  to  limit  the  width  of  the  iiilayed  bands  lo  the 
width  of  I  he  ciiciilai'  saw  cut.  '^Fo  secui'c  unity,  the  ccMitci-  baud  in 
C  is  wider  than  the  ontsidc  sections. 

A  possible  \'ai"iation  of  inoti\"e  in  l)an«l  (h'signing  may  be  secni'ed 
by  aeeentmg.  The  suiule  Itand  has  been  broken  n|>  at  /)  nito  geo- 
nielric  sections  of  pieasini^  length.  Ibit  while  this  design  gives 
varieU',  it   al>o  destr(»\s  the  nnil\    of  a  single  straight    line.      I  nit\' 


Steps  Taken 
in  Carving 


The 

Designer's 

Vocabulary 


Bands 


Accenting 


[106] 


•3UR.FA.CE    EMf^lCHhAELMT    OF  Sr^AUL.    PK.lM/\R.^  M/\^^E.5  IN  NA/OOD 
•  APPL.lC/^"TlOr-l     OF      BA.tSD<S   A.r-\0  BOI^DEl^S  " 
•  •5"<nBO\_S^    POINT  OF  COriCEHTf^ATlOM    IM  EMl^lCHriEMT  • 


W  Mmni  It  MIMI  41  HHUI  A  tRKKft  > 


rv.  i  -r.'RMf  M<  \wm  n  niinm  m 


FiG-2oa GEomeTKic   imlavd  bokdek. 

>cv.PPUED   TO    THE.     t>lOE.  OF    /\   BOX   • 


COriTKASTIHG  v/iTH    INLAV     15 


FI(S-207       TWO     VAf?lAT10H5  OF  iNL/V-r 
FOK.     150X     COVEK-     SOR.DER  MOTIVE. 


Fl&-2t3-    A  BOEDER    KElFTSESEK- 
TV^l^E   OF    CKlP  CAJ^s.'IISCS-      >T 
t5  GEOME-TiaC  IN  MOTIVE.     AhlD 
MECHANICAL.  IN  APCEAS2AMCE.  • 


C0HTK/V5TED  VALUES  KiZ  irtLA.X 


FK?.'2I4-    •     AT'OFSTiOH  OF 
A  CARVELD    AND    MODELED  FISAMJ 


Plate  34 


[107] 


may,  however,  be  restored  by  the  addition  of  the  top  and  bottom 
bands  at  E.  This  method  of  restoring  unity  is  of  extreme  vahie  in 
all  border  arrangements  and  is  constantly  used  by  the  designer. 

Rule  6f.  All  component  parts  of  a  border  should  more  {)t  unison 
with  the  main  movement  of  the  border. 

Bands,  as  has  just  been  stated,  give  distinctly  "onward"  move- 
ment. Borders  are  merely  bands  combined  with  other  motives  from 
the  designer's  vocabulary.  As  will  be  seen,  bands,  by  their  onward 
movement,  tend  to  hold  the  other  elements  of  the  border  together. 
Figure  193  is  a  border  design  without  variety,  unity,  or  interest. 
Figure  194  has  added  unitv  to  a  similar  border  bv  the  addition  of  the 
double  bands,  but  monotony  is  still  present.  Figure  195  suggests  a 
method  of  relieving  the  monotonv  bv  accentuating  everv  other  re])eat, 
thus  sui)])lying  variety  and  creating  an  analogy  to  march-time  music. 
Figure  196  has  accentuated  the  monotonous  border  in  Figure  194 
by  omitting  every  other  square.  This  makes  a  simple  and  effective 
inlay  pattern  and  suggests  a  large  number  of  possible  variations  that 
could  be  applied  to  accented  band  motives. 

Figures  197  and  198  are  border  motives  of  geometric  derivation 
taken  from  the  historic  schools  of  ornament.  Figure  198  illustrates 
the  "strap  ornament"  of  the  Moorish  school.  The  simple  underlying 
geometric  net  upon  which  these  designs  arc  based  may  be  found  in 
Meyer's  Handbook  of  Ornament. 

Inceptive  Axes 

Rule  Gh.  Borders  intended  for  vertical  surfaces  may  hare  a  strongly 
upward  movement  in  addition  to  the  lateral  movementy  provided  the 
lateral  movemeid  domi nates. 

In  addition  lo  the  purely  onward  borders  we  now  come  lo  a 
variety  with  a  distinctly  upward  movenuMil  as  well.  \\  liil(>  litis  ii(>w 
feature  adds  materially  to  the  interest  of  the  border,  it  also  adds  to 
the  difficulty  of  desigm'ng.  The  upward  m()\(Mnenl  is  often  (-(Mileicd 
aI)oul  an  axis  termed  llie  Axis  of  SyniiiK'l  i\\-  or  lncej)li\'e  Axis,  alioul 
which  are  grouped  and  balanced  (lie  dill'ei'enl  elenienls  IVoin  the 
designei"'s  \'ocabnlai'y.  \\  hen  bol  h  sides  ai'e  alike,  iheninl  >o  I'oi-nied 
is  called  a  l)i  lateral  unit.  Figure  199  show  s  I  he  I'oi-inal  ion  ol'  a  hi  la  tei'al 
unit    by  means  of  gr()n|)ing,  accenting,  and   balancing  straight    lines 


Borders 


Moorish 
Ornament 


Upward  and 

Onward 

Borders 


[108] 


Figurp:  21a. 


C'liiirlrsy  of  ISerhey  and  Gay 

Inlaid  Band  Border 


over  an  inceptive  axis.  By  adding  bands  above  and  below  and  d(m- 
])ling  these  vertical  lines  to  gain  width,  we  form  at  A  and  B,  Fignre  199, 
inlaid  designs  with  an  upward  and  onward  tendency  or  movement. 
The  introduction  of  curved  lines  and  natural  units  allows  us  to  add 
more  grace  to  these  combined  movements.  The  leading  lines  of  a 
small  border,  designed  to  be  seen  at   close  range,  are  planned  in 


[  109 


Cnurlra)/  of  Berkey  and  Gay 

Figurp:  "210. —  Sinf^le  and  Double  Rand  Inlaid  Tiordcr 


[110] 


Figure  216a. —  Work  of  High  School  Students 


Courtesy  of  C.  E.  Partch 


Figure  200.  The  central  line  or  inceptive  axis  is  repeated  at  regular 
intervals  and  the  leading  or  skeleton  lines  are  balanced  to  the  right 
and  left  of  this  axis.  These  leading  lines,  as  can  be  readily  seen,  have 
an  upward  and  onward  movement.  To  insure  continuity,  a  small 
link  and  the  top  and  bottom  bands  have  been  added  to  complete 
the  onward  movement. 

Material  for  straight  Ijorders  may  be  derived  from  geometry, 
nature,  or  artificial  forms,  but  for  borders  designed  in  curves,  nature 
is  generally  selected  as  a  source. 

Figure  201  illustrates  a  crude  and  uninteresting  form,  unsuited 
to  outline  enrichment.  Figure  202  has  brought  Figure  201  into  some 
semblance  of  order,  but  as  can  be  readily  seen  by  the  primary'  outline 
which  encloses  it,  tlie  widest  point  occurs  exactly  midway  from 
top  to  bottom,  which  makes  the  form  monotonous.  This  defect  has 
been  remedied  in  Figure  203  and  an  interesting  and  varied  area 
appears  for  the  first  time.  What  Dr.  Ilaney  calls  "the  feebly  flapping 
curve"  of  Figure  202  has  been  replaced  by  the  vigorous  and  "snappy" 
curve  of  Figure  203,  which  gives  what  is  termed  a  dynamic  or  rhyth- 
mic value  in  surface  enrichment. 


[Ill] 


Figure  21Gb. —  Work  of  Hi"!!  School  Students 


Cuurtcsy  vf  (.'.  E.  J'artcli 


Rule  6g.  Edc/i  component  part  of  ci  border  should  be  .sirongli/ 
dynamic  and,  if  possible,  partake  of  the  main  more  men  fs  of  the  l)order. 

Any  form  wliicli  causes  the  eve  to  move  in  a  Liiveii  direction  is 
slrongl}^  dynamic,  and  is  oj)posed  to  the  static  form  whicli  (h)es  not 
cause  a  marked  eye  movennMit.  A  circle  is  syml)()lic  of  the  static 
form,  while  a  triangle  is  dynamic.  In  the  designer's  nomenclature, 
the  term  "rhvlhmic"  mav  he  used  svn()nvm()nsi\-  with  "dvnnniic." 

Dynamic  areas  oi- forms  should  carry  out  the  n|)\\ard  and  onwaid 
movement  of  the  leading  lines.  Figure  '■2()4  sliows  how  closely 
dynamic  areas  are  coimected  with  natur(>'s  units  for  design  motives. 
A  slight  change  in  the  conloui-  m;iy  li-ansform  a  leaf  into  excellent 
Tuaterial  with  which  lo  clothe  I  he  leading  lines.  The  cnr\-e  of  foi'ce, 
the  eyma,  and  oilier  eur\-(\s  (hvsci-ihed  in  j)i-e\i()us  eh;i})lei-s  should 
be  recognized  hy  I  he  designer  iind  ul  ili/.ecl  in  I  he  eon  I  on  I's  of  dynninie 
forms. 


[  n2 1 


Figure  216c. —  Instruction  Sheet  Problem 


Courtesy  of  C.  E.  Purtch 


The  leading  lines  of  the  l)order  in  Figure  "^OO  are  shown  clothed 
or  enriched  in  Figure  205.  Vigorous  dynamic  spots,  conventionalized 
from  natural  units,  continue  the  upward  and  onward  movement  of 
the  original  leading  lines.  As  will  be  noted,  the  background  has  been 
treated  to  allow  the  spots  to  appear  in  relief.  Small  "fussy"  spots  or 
areas  have  been  omitted  and  the  units,  varied  in  size  and  strongly 
dynamic  in  form,  })alance  over  an  inceptive  axis.  The  small  link 
reaches  out  its  helping  hand  to  complete  the  onward  movement 
without  loss  of  unitv,  while  the  bands  above  and  l^elow  bind  the 
design  together  and  assist  in  the  lateral  movement.  Figure  205 
shows  three  methods  of  treatment:  simple  spots  without  modeling, 
from  AtoB\  slight  indications  of  modeling,  from  B  to  C;  full  model- 
ing of  the  entire  unit  at  C.  The  choice  of  treatment  depends,  of 
course,  upon  the  skill  of  the  craftsman. 


[113] 


Courtesy  of  Bcrkey  and  (jay 

Vu.VHK   '^IT.       ('iir\('(l   and    Accnilcd    loonier   and    Timi)]!'   Carved    l?and 

Figure  "iOi)  sliows  a  (hvsigii  \ni"i('(I  rrom  formal  halaiicc  oNcr  a 
central  axis  of  syumietry  oi-  an  iiicej)!  ixc  axis.  1 1  lias  a  decided 
onward  movement  willi  tlie  leaxcs  halaiiccMl  ahoxc  and  Ixdow  llie 
stem  wliieli  is  I  lie  axis.  'V\\v  '"I'epeal""  lias  Itccii  re\-ers(>(l  a  I  11  and  is 
more  ])]easing  lliaii  (lie  j)orlion  al  .1.  Tlie  area  of  (lie  l)aeki;roiiiid, 
in  ils  relation  lo  thai  used  for  ornainenlal  ion  or  "liiliiii;."  eaiinol  be 
predetermined  witli  (\xaclness.  "^I'liere  should  l)e  no  Idank  sj)aces 
for  tlie  eye  lo  bridge.      Some  designers  allow  about  onc-tliird  ground 


[114] 


i 


X 

a 

ft, 


<5> 


a 


^ 


.^^,^—..^ 


Ll 


-,f/' 


—^Zji 


:3a 


T 


Point  of 
Concentration 
— Effect  upon 
Structure 


[Uo] 

for  two-thirds  filling  or  enrichment.     This  proportion  gives  a  full 
and  rich  effect  and  may  be  adopted  in  most  instances  as  satisfactory. 

When  a  border  is  used  to  parallel  a  rectangle  it  is  customary  to 
strengthen  the  border  at  the  corners  for  two  reasons:  first,  to 
strengthen,  apparently,  the  structure  at  these  points;  second,  to 
assist  the  eye  in  making  the  sudden  turn  at  the  corner.  The  corner 
enforcement  aft'ords  momentary  resting  points  for  the  eye,  and  adds 
pleasing  variety  to  the  long  line  of  border.  The  strengthened 
point  is  called  the  poiJtt  of  concentration  or  point  of  force.  Its  presence 
and  effect  may  be  noted  by  the  symbol  P.  C.  in  Figures  207,  208, 
213,  and  214. 

Figure  213  represents  the  rather  angular  and  monotonous  chip  Carving 
carving  motive.  It  is,  however,  a  simple  form  of  carved  enrichment 
for  wood  construction.  Figure  214  shows  the  more  rhythmic  flow 
of  a  carved  and  modeled  enrichment.  Two  methods  of  leaf  treatment 
are  given  at  A  and  B. 

F'igures  215,  216,  and  217  are  industrial  and  ])ublic  school  examples 
of  the  forms  of  surface  enrichment  treated  in  this  chapter. 


Chip 


INSTRUCTION    SHEET 

Plate  35  shows  the  necessary  working  drawings  for  wood  inhiy  and  is 
supplied  as  a  typical  high  school  problem  by  Mr.  C.  E.  I'artcli  of  Des  Moines, 
Iowa.      See  Figure  '21Gc. 


SUMM.\RY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)   Draw  the  piimary  rectangle,  appendage,  etc. 

(6)    Subdivide  the  rectangle  into  its  horizdiital  and  vertical  subdivisions. 

(c)    Design  very  simple  contour  eiiriciitneiit . 

{(l)    Determine  the  location  of  zone  of  enrichuient,  auti  tlic  amount  and  methud 

of  enriching  the  surface, 
(e)    Make  several  pr<liiiiiiiary  sketches  to  determine  the  best  design  and  add  the 

one  finally  selected  to  the  st  ruct  ure.      Cnrrelate  with  contour  enrichment . 
(/)    Add    additional    views,    dimension,    and    otherwise    prepare    the    drawing 

for  shop  use. 


SUGGESTED    FHOBLEM 

Design  a  walnut  side  table  '.i  feel  high  aii.i  eiiricli  w  it  li  a  doubi.'  i)au(i  inlay 
of  ebony. 


[116] 

SUMMARY    OF   RULES 

Rule  (la.      Surfaces  to  be  enriched  must  admit  of  enrichment. 

Rule  (ib.  Surface  enrichment  must  be  related  to  the  structural  contours  but 
must  not  obscure  the  actual  structure. 

Rule  ()c.      The  treatment  must  be  appropriate  to  the  material. 

Rule  ()tl.  Bands  and  borders  should  have  a  consistent  lateral,  that  is,  onward 
movement. 

Rule  6e.  Bands  and  borders  shotild  never  have  a  prominent  contrary  motion, 
opposed  to  the  main  forward  movement. 

Rule  Cf.  ,1//  component  parts  of  a  border  should  move  in  unison  with  the 
main  movement  of  the  border. 

Rule  6g.  Each  component  part  of  a  border  should  be  .strongly  dynamic  and,  if 
possible,  partake  of  the  main  movement    of  the  border. 

Rule  (ill.  Borders  intended  for  vertical  surfaces  may  have  a  strongly  upward 
movement  in  addition  to  the  lateral  movement,  provided  the  lateral  movement 
dominates. 

Rule  (>i.  I nlayed  enrichment  should  never  form  strong  or  glaring  contrasts 
tvifh  the  parent  surface. 

Rule  Gj.  Carved  surface  enrichment  should  have  the  appearance  of  belonging 
to  the  parent  mass. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  reasons  why  surface  enrichment  may  be  used  as  decoration. 

2.  State    an    original    example    illustrating    when    and    where    to    use    surface 

enrichment. 

3.  Name  an  oltject  from  the  industrial  arts  in  which  the  structure  has  been 

weakened  or  obscured  by  the  application  of  surface  enrichment.     Name 
•  an  example  of  the  correct  use  of  surface  enrichment  and  state  wherein  it  has 
been  correctly  applied. 

4.  How  should  surface  enrichment  of  small  masses  differ  from  that  applied 

to  larger  masses;    in  what  manner  does  the  fiber  of  the  wood  affect  the 
design.^ 

5.  Name  three  means  of  enriching  the  surface  of  wood.      IJriefly  describe  the 

processes  of  inlaying  and  carving,   with  the  design  restrictions  govern- 
ing each. 

6.  Give  three  sources  of  ornament  open  to  the  designer  of  surface  enrichment. 

7.  Draw  an  accented  triple  band  motive  for  inlay. 

8.  What   is    the   inceptive   axis;    a   l)ilateral    unit?     What  are    leading   lines; 

dynamic  forms ;   points  of  concentration.* 
0.   Design  an  upward  and  onward  continuous  carved  border  for  wood  and  base  it 
upon  a  vertical  inceptive  axis.     Treat  as  in  .\,  Figure  205. 
10.    Illustrate  the  manner  in  which  structure  may  be  apparently  strengthened 
by  a  band  or  border. 


Chapter  X 


SURFACE   ENRICHMENT  OF  SMALL  PRIMARY    :\IASSES 

IN    WOOD— Contiiuied 

Enclosed  and  Free  Ornament 

Chapter   IX   dealt   with   methods   of   developing  continuous   or 
repeating  ornament  (bands  or  borders).     This  leaves  enclosed  and     Enclosed 
free  forms  of  surface  enrichment  to  be  considered  in  this  chapter.  Ornament 

As  an  enclosed  form,  a  panel  may  be  enriched  by  geometric,  (Panels) 
natural,  or  artificial  ornament.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  definite  boundarv 
of  bands  or  lines  and  may  be  a  scjuare  or  other  polygon,  circle,  elli})se, 
lunette,  spandrel,  lozenge,  or  triangle.  As  the  decoration  does  not 
have  the  continuous  repeating  movement  of  the  bonh'r  and  as  it 
covers  an  enclosed  area,  it  is  necessarily  treated  in  a  ditterent  manner 
from  either  band  or  bordcM*.  lis  object  is  to  decorate  a  plane  surface. 
The  enrichment  may  l)e  made  by  means  of  carving,  inlaying,  or 
j)ainting. 

Free  ornament  means  the  use  of  motives  not  severelv  enclosed  ])v 
l)ands  or  panels.     Free  ornament  is  generally  aj)])lie(l   lo  centers  oi-     pree 
u])per  j)ortions  of  surfaces  to  relieve  a  monolonous  area  not  suited  to     Ornament 
either  panel   or   border  treatment.      It    may    liax'e   an    u])\\ar(l    or  a 
radial  movemeU'l  dependent   iijxxi   the  cliai'aclcM-  of   the   member   to 
be  ein'iched. 

AVe  then  have  three  forms  of  ])()ssible  surface  enrichnieiit  :  I'epeal- 
ing  or  continuous  motives,  enclos(Ml  niolix-es.  and  fi'ee  motives.      Our     Summary 
next  j)oint  is  to  consider  w  here  t  he  last  I  wo  may  be  used  ap])ropriately 
in  surface  em"i(  liiiieiil . 

The  j)anel  of  a  small  |)i'imai'y  mass  of  wood  may  be  eiii-iched  at  any 
one  of  three  j)la('es:  first,  at  (he  margins;  second,  a!  the  center; 
third,  o\-er  llie  enlii'e  >ni't'aee.  'I'lie  exact  |)ositioii  is  a  mallei'  to  be 
determined  l)y  I  he  si  rnci  iiral  design  and  I  he  ul  ilitai'ian  re(|nii'enienls 
of  the  j)roblem.      For  exani})le,  a  bread  board  or  LaboreL  to])  would 

[117] 


[  118 


Zone  of 
Enrichment 


Structural 
Reinforce- 
ment 


Marginal 

Zone 

Enrichment 


require  the  enrichment  in  the  margin  with  the  center  left  free.  A 
table  leg  might  require  an  enrichment  in  the  center  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  leg,  while  a  square  panel  to  be  inserted  in  a  door, 
Figure  '233,  Page  124,  might  require  full  surface  treatment. 

Each  area  of  panel  enrichment  should  have  one  or  more  accented 
points  known  as  points  of  concentration.  The  design  should  become 
more  prominent  at  these  places  and  cause  the  eye  to  rest  for  a  moment 
before  passing  to  the  next  point  of  prominence.  The  accented  portion 
of  the  design  at  these  points  should  be  so  related  to  the  structure 
that  it  apparently  reinforces  the  structure  as  a  whole.  Corners, 
centers  of  edges,  and  geometric  centers  are  salient  parts  of  a  structure; 
we  shall  therefore  be  likely  to  find  our  points  of  concentration  coin- 
ciding with  them.  Let  us  then  consider  the  first  of  these  arrange- 
ments as  applied  to  enclosed  enrichment. 

Marginal  Panel  Enrichment 
Enclosed  Enrichment  for  Partly  Enriched  Surfaces 

Rule  7a.  Marginal  panel  enrichment  should  parallel  or  be  related 
to  the  outlines  of  the  primary  mass  and  to  the  panel  it  is  to  enrich. 

Rule  7b.  Marginal  points  of  concentration  in  panels  should  be 
placed  (1)  preferably  at  the  corner  or  (2)  in  the  center  of  each  margin. 

Rule  7c.  To  insure  unity  of  design  in  panels,  the  elements  compos- 
ing the  points  of  concentration  and  the  links  connecting  them  must  be 
related  to  the  panel  contour  and  to  each  other. 

The  marginal  method  of  enrichment  may  be  used  when  it  is 
impossible  to  enrich  the  entire  surface  because  the  center  is  to  be 
used  for  utilitarian  purposes  or  because  it  would  be  aesthetically 
unwise  to  enrich  the  entire  surface.  The  marginal  zone  is  adapted 
to  enriching  box  tops,  stands,  table  tops,  and  similar  surfaces  designed 
preferably  with  the  thought  of  being  seen  from  above.  We  shall 
call  such  surfaces  horizontal  planes. 

As  the  design  is  to  be  limited  to  the  margin,  the  panel  outline  is 
bound  to  parallel  the  contours,  or  outlines,  of  the  surface  to  be 
enriched.  It  is  well  to  begin  the  design  by  creating  a  panel  parallel 
to  the  outlines  of  the  enriched  surface.  Figure  218.  The  next  step 
is  to  place  the  point  of  concentration  in  the  marginal  zone  and  within 
this  figure.     Common  usage  dictates  the  corners  as  the  proper  points. 


iin] 


It  may  be  the  designer's  practice  to  use  the  single  or  double  bands, 
Figures  218,  !^19,  '-ZW,  with  a  single  accentuation  at  the  corners. 
The  spots  composing  the  point  of  concentration  must  have  unity 
with  the  enclosing  contours  and  with  the  remainder  of  the  enrichment. 
Figure  220  is,  in  this  respect,  an  improvement  over  Figure  219,  But 
these  examples  are  not  true  enclosed  panel  enrichment.  They  are 
the  borders  of  Chapter  IX  acting  as  marginal  enrichment.  It  is 
not  until  we  reach  Figure  221  that  the  true  enclosed  enrichment 
appears,  when  the  panel  motive  is  clearly  evident.  In  this  figure  a 
single  incised  l)and  parallels  the  contours  of  the  figure  until  the  corner 
is  reached.  Here  we  find  it  turning,  gracefully  widening  to  give 
variety,  and  supj)orting  the  structure  by  its  own  increased  strength. 
The  single  band  in  Figure  221  acts  as  a  bridge,  leads  the  eye  from  one 
point  of  concentration  to  the  next  similar  point,  forms  a  compact 
mass  with  the  point  of  concentration,  and  parallels  the  enclosing 
contours  of  the  enriched  surface. 

In  Figure  222  the  point  of  concentration  is  to  be  found  in  the 
center  of  each  margin.  This  bilateral  unit  is  clearly  designed  on  and 
about  the  center  lines  of  the  square  panel.  These  points  of  con- 
centration take  the  place  of  previous  concentrations  at  the  corners 
which  were  based  upon  the  square's  diagonals.  AVliile  accenting 
based  upon  the  center  lines  is  accepta})le,  this  means  of  concentration 
does  not  seem  so  successfully  to  relate  the  accented  part  to  the 
structural  outlines  as  that  of  concentration  based  upon  the  diagonals. 
The  latter,  therefore,  is  recommended  for  beginners.  The  corners 
of  Figure  222  are,  however,  slightly  accented  by  means  of  the  bridg- 
ing spots  x-x. 

The  diagonals  and  center  lines  of  the  surface  enriched  squares 
of  Figures  221  and  222  and  similar  structural  lines  are  inceptive  axes, 
as  they  are  center  lines  for  new  design  groups.  It  may  then  be  said 
I  hat  a  strong  basic  axis  or  similar  line  depending  upon  the  structure, 
may  become  the  center  line  or  inceptive  axis  upon  which  U)  construct 
a  bilateral  design.  It  is  only  necessary  to  have  this  inceptive  axis 
pass  through  the  enrichment  zone  of  the  paneh  Hereafter  in  the 
drawings,  inceptive  axes  will  l)e  desigtiated  by  the  al)breviation 
I.  A.  while  the  point  of  concent  nit  ion  will  be  indicated  by  the  abbre- 
viation P.  C. 


Points  of 
Concentration 


Points  of 
Concentration 
in  ttie  Corner 
of  Margin 


Points  of 
Concentration 
in  the  Center 
of  Margin 


Inceptive 
Axes  or 
Balancing 
Lines 


[  120  ] 


•  5UKFACE        EMK-lCHMEnr    OF      SMAl^L.     PRinAf^V  MASSES  Ih  V/OOD 

•MARLe^lMAU       EH^lCHnEMT       OF      5QUA.R.E.     AISEAS   • 
•S^MBOUS:  $     "POlMT   OF  CQHCEMXKATlOM;-4^   INCEPTIVE  AX15  • 
•TOOU  FT^CX:E.S5E3  ■     inL-Al'ltS&     AMD  CAK^lHG  • 


7ar' 


\ 


? 


FIG-  2.\& 


BAMD    MOTIVES        *>HOW- 
1N&'5    AT    THE      COiertET^S 

FIG    •    21s  • 


FIG-  2ZO 


0  5EO    /^t> 
IM.CEPT'.VE  Ay^i 


|ihiiiiini!ii!iiiiimiiiiMii|j||ji|]n 


DIAMETERS  OSEO 
AS    INCEPnvE 
Ajcii-  • 


/^-7c 


PIG-  223  — 

CAK-^&D    MARGiMAO^EHTSlCHMEHT 


f^lG-  2.2.4- 

L-E/^OINCS    UtHES  FOR  FlG  223 


Plate  36 


[  1^21  ] 

The  strongest  plea  for  the  inceptive  axis  is  the  fact  that  it  inter- 
locks surface  enrichment  with  the  structure,  insuring  a  degree  of     inceptive 
unity  that  might  otherwise  be  unattainable.  Axis 

The  carved  enrichment  of  Figure  223  fully  illustrates  this  point. 
The  analytical  study  of  Figure  '-2'-24  shows  the  diagonal  used  as  an 
inceptive  axis,  with  the  leading  lines  grouped  about  it  at  the  corner 
point  of  concentration. 

Free  Enkiciiment 

Rule  8a.  Free  ornament  for  jmrtly  orfnlly  enriched  surfaces  should 
he  based  and  centered  upon  an  inceptive  axis  of  the  structure. 

Rule  8b.  Free  ornament  should  be  related  and  subordinated  to  the 
sfr uct  ural  su  rfaces . 

Rule  8c.  Poijits  of  concentration  in  free  enrichment  of  rerticaUy 
placed  masses  are  usually  located  in  and  around  the  inceptive  axis  and 
above  or  below  the  geometric  center  of  the  desitjn. 

This     method     of    surface    enrichment    is    used     lo    relieve    the 
design  of  heavy  meml)ers  in  the  structure  or  to  distribute  ornanuMil      Center 
over   the    surface    of    lighter    parts    in    a    piece    of    furniture.     An     Zone 
example  is  noted  in  Figure  246,  Page  128,  where  the  upper  portion  of     Enrichment 
the  legs  has  center  enrichment.     As  can  be  readily  seen,  the  enrich- 
ment  is  generally  free  in  character  with   little  or  no   indication   of 
enclosure.     Figure  22,5  shows  the  ai)plication  of  free  enrichment  to  a 
])aneled  screen  or  hinged  door.     The  P.  (\  is  in  the  u|)])er  j)ortion  of 
the  door  and  is  re-echoed  in  the  door  frames,  while  the  ornanuMit  itself 
is  stronjilv  dvnamic  in  movement  witli  a  decided  uT)wnrd  tcMidiMicv  in 
symi)athy  with  the  proportions  of  the  door.     This  motive  might  be 
(level()j)ed  by  inlay,  cnr\ing,  or  j)aint. 

Figure  22(1  is  a  carved  (iothic  leaf,  ai)pr()prialely  used  as  cnrich- 
UKMit  of  heavv  furniture.  The  unit  ma\'  be  raised  al)()\('  th('  surface 
or,  ('\en  more  easily,  dej)ressed  or  incised  into  the  surface.  The  small 
corner  spot  is  added  with  the  intention  of  bringing  the  leaf  into 
sympathetic  conformity  with  the  contours.  Note  liow  the  eeiitei- 
line  of  both  units  in  Figures  22.")  and  22()  coincides  with  the  ineej)ti\-e 
axis  of  the  structure.  Let  it  again  l)e  i-(>iterate(l  llial  this  binding 
of  the  surface  eiuiclinient  to  the  structure  bv  means  of  I  lie  coincidence 


[  122] 


SUJ^FACE.     EMKICHME-MT       OF   5MALL    PRIMARY  MAS^E3   IM  WOOD 

•FEE-E.     CEMTEK      EMt^lCHnE-HT       FOl^  N^E.RTICAl_   At^EAvsS  • 
•TOOL.  PROCe-SSE^:    IMLAYIH&.LOWE'E.LIEF  CARviNCn* 


FIG-  ^-ZjS  -R)EHlTUf2EnETA\L 
LOW  BELIEF  GOTHIC  CARVIhG- 


r»&    225  — 

IHLAID-  PAIMTED-  CA.JSVED 


FlCi-E^T-   PAPEK.     CCTTEK  •  INCISED     DECOR.ATION 

I? 


fi-b 


FIG-  229-  PIEI^CEO  EMKICHHEJ"1T 


^{Gy-ZZG-       B00l<-5TALl_- 

UDW  KEUEF     CAvRVlNG  • 

FKEE     ArtO  KARC-^iriAUEfH^lCHriEMT- 


i^=^ 

~~U 

1- 

w 

j.^] 

J 

1 

._, _ 

-^ 

I 

! 

S"b(?^ 


flc-1  •  230  ohk.elate.d  piekcej5 
hh;?.ichme.ht- 


Plate  37 


[  1^23  ] 


of  the  axes  of  symmetry  and  the  inceptive  axes  causes  the  most 
positive  kind  of  unity.  No  part  of  this  form  of  enrichment  should 
be  carved  sufficiently  high  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  separated 
from  the  main  surface. 

Figures  227  and  228  are  additional  examples  of  free  enrichment. 
Figure  228  has  introduced  by  its  monogram  the  individual  touch 
of  ownership  so  essential  to  the  success  of  school  designing.  The 
monogram  represents  free  enrichment  while  the  border  is  marginal 
decoration  with  the  point  of  concentration  in  the  center  of  the  top 
edge.  Both  types  of  enrichment  are  related  to  each  other  and  to  the 
structural  contours. 

Figure  229  is  typical  free  pierced  enrichment.  The  wood  in  the 
enriched  portion  is  removed  and  the  resulting  figure  supplies  added 
lightness  of  construction  and  variety  to  the  surface.  One  encounters 
this  form  of  enrichment  in  the  average  school  project  with  greater 
frequency  than  either  inlaying  or  carving.  It  is  with  the  thought  of 
adding  to  the  possibilities  of  school  project  decoration  that  the  latter 
forms  have  been  introduced.  A  word  regarding  the  errors  often 
encountered  in  pierced  enrichment  of  the  character  of  Figure  229  may 
not  be  amiss.  Pui)ils,  believing  the  square  to  be  the  last  word  in  this 
form  of  enrichment,  place  the  figure  on  the  member  to  be  enriched 
with  little  though  I  of  its  possible  relation  to  the  structural  contours; 
the  result  is  the  un-unified  design  ilhistrated  in  Figure  230.  To 
correct  this,  reference  should  be  made  to  Rule  81). 


Examples 
of  Free 
Enrichment 


Pierced 

Free 

Enrichment 


Errors  in 
the  Use  of 
Pierced 
Enrichment 


Full  Panel  Enhkiiment 

Rule  7d.      The  contours  of  fully  enriched  panels  .should  pandJcJ  the 
outlines  of  the  primary  mass  and  repeat  its  proportions. 

This  is  the  richest  and  most  elaborati^  form  of  enriclimeni  wlien 
carried  lo  ils  full  jxM'feclion.  Il  generally  lakes  the  t'oriii  of  a  panel  Full  Surface 
filled  willi  a])pro])riate  (h'sign  material.  This  panel  may  be  us(>d  to  Enrichment 
enrich  the  |)lain  end  of  a  ])rojeel  such  as  a  book  siall  and  thus  cover 
the  enl  ire  sni'faee.  oi'  il  may  be  inserted  into  a  lai'ge  |)i-iniai-y  mass 
and  accenlnale  ils  center  as  in  a  dooi',  in  a  inannei-  >iinilai-  to  I-'ignre 
233.  Its  use,  \vliale\'er  its  ))osition,  leads  us  Lu  Llic  consideration 
of  methods  of  designing  full  |)ane]s. 


[124] 


5UK.FACE   EMi^lCHMEMT       OF     5M/\LL    PElf^AKV   M ASSY'S  in  WOOD  • 
•  EHCLQ5ED       E-HKICHME-MT:  SQUAKE  AMD  &ECTAM G U LARL 
PAMEL5—  TOOL    PKOCE53E5-    CAKIVIHC?.  .  IML-A'^ING.  • 


FIG.-  2.31  


FI&-2-32. 

■5  IM  cemter: 


FI&-2.34-- 
DATA- 


FIG  -235    APPU- 
CATIOM  OF  DATA- 


FIG  2.3T  FlG-238- 


FIG    £33 

APPLICATIOM    OF  FIG5  231-^• 


t 


4^ 


Ut* 


h 


FIG    ^39 


FIGURES    2.35    AMD   SAO     AI^E    RECOM- 
MENDED    T^PES   FOR.    BE<S:.lhnEKS-   FIG5. 
237    TO   239      J^EP'JS-E.SE.H-r   l-HE    OE^E\_- 
OF'ME.MXOF     A     •S>IKIPL.E.    UHVT- 


FIG     ZA-O- 


FIG- 236- 


Plate  38 


[  1^25  ] 


Rule  7e.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  Jnllij  enriched  square 
panel  may  he  in  its  center  or  in  its  outer  margin. 

In  planning  designs  for  full  panels,  it  would  be  well  to  consider:     Square 
first,  square  panels;  second,  rectangular  panels;  third,  varied  panels.     Panels 
The  point  of  concentration  may  be  kept  in  the  corners  of  a  square 
panel,  as  designed  in  Figure  231,  or  it  may  be  placed  in  the  center, 
as  shown  in  Figure  23*2.     The  effects,  when  assembled,  are  indicated 
in  Figure  233. 

To  secure  these  effects,  a  square  panel  is  commonly  divided  into 
quarter  sections  by  center  lines.  The  diagonals  of  each  quarter  should 
be  drawn  before  proceeding  with  the  details  of  the  design.  These 
diagonals  and  center  lines  are  the  building  lines  or  leading  axes  of 
the  pattern.  The  leading  lines  and  details  are  then  grouped  around 
these  center  and  diagonal  axes  in  a  manner  quite  similar  to  the  method 
used  in  Figures  223  and  224.  These  leading  lines  are  then  clothed  with 
enrichment  by  applying  the  processes  indicated  in  Chapter  IX. 

Without  going  into  detail  we  may  say  that  it  is  good  practice: 
first,  to  draw  the  square  panel;  second,  to  draw  the  center  lines  and  steps  in 
diagonals;  third,  to  locate  points  of  concentration;  fourth,  to  make  Panel 
the  leading  lines  move  inwardlv  to  center  concentration  or  oulwardlv  Designing 
to  corner  concentration;  fiflli,  to  clothe  these  lines  with  ornament 
having  strongly  dynamic  movement  corresponding  to  the  leading 
lines;  sixth,  to  fill  in  remaining  space  with  ornament,  supporting 
the  movement  towai'd  j)()ints  of  concentration,  vww  lliougli  shglil 
and  minor  contrasts  of  direction  are  added  lo  give  variety.  When 
the  entire  design  is  completed  one  should  ask  the  following  questions: 
Does  the  design  have  unity?  Does  it  seem  loo  lliin  and  spindling? 
And  most  of  all,  do  the  points  of  concentnition  and  shaj)e  of  the 
j)anel  fit  the  structural  onl lines  and  7)rop()rti()ns?  We  cannot  fit 
a  s(|uare  ])eg  into  a  roniid  hole;  iicilhcr  can  we  fit  a  s(|nai'e  j)anel 
into  a  circnlar  or  rectangular  mass  without  considerable  change 
lo  the  panel. 

Figures  231-  and  23.>  hax'c  been  drawn  with  I  he  '\i\c:\  of  snggesling 
a  sinij)lc  and  modified  form  of  |)an('l  cinMchnicnl  w  hich  may  \)c  readily 
handled  by  the  ix'gimiei-.  'I'he  I  i'e(>  as  a  deeoia  1 1\  c  >\  nibol  is  appro- 
priate to  wood,  and  its  adaption  lo  a  scjuare  panel  is  drawn  at 
Figure  23.>. 


[  1^26  ] 


.5UK.rACE  ErilSICHMEHT  OF    SMALL    "PKlMAK.'-r     MAS5E.5     IM    NA/QOD  • 

•  EMCLOSE-D     PATiEL    Eril^CHMEMT     —  FORMAL  AHD  FEEE.  BALANCE.  • 

•  APPLICATIOH    OF  hAn-URA^\_  AHO  ARTIFICIAL 
MOTIVE S>  • 


MOTE.  THE 
5lOiMIFICAMr 
USE  OF  THE. 
jNICBcrrTLE 
AHD  FEATHER 
PE.H     FOJiBH- 
I?ICHIN&  A 

KAC.li;.— ' 


•  FIGZ41     LETTER  RACK.- FDKMAl  6ALAMCE 


FIG  24-2-    book:  5TALL  FOI^MAl  e^ALAHCEL- 
F\_^-r     AMD       r~100E.LE.O  TR.EATME.MT. 


':^ 


jL 


•  FI<S  24-3    BI^ACtCE-T  5HOW- 

\HC-.  MARGIHAL  AMD  PAHEL- 

T-rPE5  - 


Fl<?.  2.4+  TKIPTYCH   FREE  BALANCE 
THREE  VERTICAL    DIVI5IOM5. 


FIC-.  24-5  BOUILLOM  CUP  Fi2.E.E. 
BAL^MCE  MOTIVE  FOK.  CECTAH- 
GUUAK.     SEJ5ViM<?.    Tl^lAV   •  -  ■  ' 


Plate  39 


[127  ] 


While  a  rectangular  panel  may  be  divided  into  sections  by  a 
number  of  different  methods,  it  is  well  for  the  beginner  in  design  to 
treat  it  as  a  vertical  mass,  designed  to  enrich  a  vertical  surface. 
This  vertical  panel  may  then  be  divided  into  halves  by  the  axis  of 
symmetry,  which  should  coincide  with  an  inceptive  axis,  but  it  is  not 
essential  to  balance  the  enrichment  exactly  in  each  half.  Small 
deviations  from  exact  symmetry  sometimes  give  added  variety  to  the 
design.     Figure  235. 

Rule  7f.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  fully  enriched  vertical 
panel  should  be  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  panel. 

The  point  of  concentration  in  vertical  panels  should  be  in  the 
upper  portion,  and  all  parts  of  the  design,  both  leading  lines  and 
clothing,  should  have  a  strong  upward  tendency.  Figure  23()  is  a 
vertical  panel  from  historic  ornament.  The  heavier  parts  have  been 
designed  at  the  bottom  for  stability  and  the  lighter  and  more  intricate 
members  have  been  placed  at  the  top. 

Rule  7g.  The  fully  enriched  panel  and  its  contents  should  he 
designed  in  unified  relation  to  the  structural  outlines,  irith  the  center  line 
of  the  panel  coinciding  2vith  the  inceptive  axis  of  the  structure. 

To  see  how  to  apply  rectangular  panels  to  wood  surfaces,  let  us 
look  at  Figure  240.  This  is  a  simple  design  with  an  incised  back- 
ground and  might  be  used  for  enriching  a  narrow  paneled  door, 
newel  post,  or  frame.  The  large  areas  are  at  the  bottom;  the  point 
of  concentration  is  at  the  top,  and  the  entire  design  balances  over 
the  inceptive  axis.  The  ])()int  of  concentration  consists  of  the  geo- 
metricallv  treated  snudl  flower  form,  with  its  original  lines  modified 
to  simplify  the  carving  })rocesses.  The  stem  coincid(\s  willi  th(^ 
ince])tive  axis,  while  narrow  and  sym])allie(i('ally  i-elaled  minor 
l)anels  hll  in  I  lie  background  and  kvvp  the  design  from  ai)peai-iiig 
weak  and  thin. 

Figure  237  is  an  accurate  rendering  of  the  flower  foiMii  and  is  tlu^ 
data  or  record  of  facts  for  Figure  240.  Figure  238  introduces  the 
method  of  ])l()lting  the  areas  from  these  facts.  \'ariety  of  form  and 
area  is,  at  this  stage,  desirable.  I^'igure  230  has  assembled  these  areas 
into  orderly  balance  oxer  the  axis  of  synnnelry.  r'igure  240  has  again 
slightly  modified  them  to  a])])ly  to  the  vertical  i)anel  in  wood. 


Rectangular 
Panels 


Vertical 
Panels 


Adapting 
Data  to 
Material 


[  1^^8  ] 


Courtesy  of  Berkey  and  Gay 

Figure  246. —  Example  of  Free  and  Marginal  Enrichment 


[  i^^o  ] 

Varied  Panels 

The  panels  under  consideration  up  to  this  time  have  been  designed 
to   harmonize   with   square   and   rectangular  contours.     The   panel     Panels  of 
may,  however,   become  a  most  flexible  and  sympathetic  element.     Varied 
changing  its  form  to  suit  the  ever-changing  contours.     But  though     ^"^P^s 
change  of  shape  affects  the  contents  of  the  panel  to  a  certain  extent 
the  points  of  concentration  and  the  inceptive  axes  still  act  as  our 
guide.     Objects  are  arranged  formally  on  each  side  of  the  inceptive 
axes  and  the  space  filling  is  approximately  the  same  as  in  former 
examples. 

The  still  life  sketches  of  the  art  class  may  be  conventionalized 
into  appropriate  motives  for  utilitarian  objects  as  shown  in  Figure     use  of 
241.     This  use  of  still  life  suggests  a  most  desirable  correlation  and  a     Artificial 
welcome  one  to  many  drawing  teachers.     Three  points  should  be     Objects 
kept  in  mind:  first,  adaptability  of  the  object,  its  decorative  possi- 
bilities, and  appropriateness  to  service;  second,  adjustment  of  the 
panel  to  contours;  third,  adjustment  of  the  object  to  the  wood  panel. 

Some  portion  of  the  object  should  be  designed  to  parallel  the  panel. 
Small  additional  spots  may  assist  in  promoting  harmony  between 
the  object  and  the  panel  boundary.  These  three  considerations  are 
essentiallv  necessarv  factors  in  tlie  design  of  enclosed  enrichment. 
Figures  242  and  243  are  other  adaptations  of  panel  design  to  varied 
contours. 

In  the  foregoing  examples  the  designs  are  more  or  less  rigidly 
])alanced  over  the  inceptive  axis  or  axis  of  symmetry.  Imaginary  pree 
axis  it  is,  but,  acting  with  the  panel,  it  nevertheless  arbitrarily  limits  Balance 
the  position  of  all  j)arts  within  the  i)anel.  Hy  removing  this  sem- 
blance of  formal  balance,  we  aj)i)roach  wliat  is  termed  free  balance. 
In  this  we  find  thai  tlie  designer  attempts  to  l)alance  objects 
informally  over  the  geometric  center  of  the  })anel  or  combined  panels. 
As  the  arrow  points  in  Figure  244  indicate,  (he  ])r()l)lem  is  to  balance 
the  trees  in  an  informal  nnd  irregular  manner,  avoiding  "picket 
fence"  regularity.  In  all  of  this  freedom  there  is  a  scMise  of  order, 
since  a  mass  of  trees  on  one  side  of  the  geometric  ((Miter  is  balanced 
by  a  similar  mass  on  the  other  side.  In(ie(>(l.  in  l^'igure  244  this  may 
be  carried  even  to  the  ])oinl  of  duplical  iug  in  reverse  order  the  outside 
pan(4s  of  the  Triptych. 


[130] 


■l^ULELS   7DT0  7E--     ENCLOSED   SUi^FACE.  EHi^lCHMEMT  NA^ITH 
APPLICATIOM  OF  5TILL  LIFE!  TO  A  FuLLrf  EMI^ICHELD    SUiSFACE.  • 

•  iHS'reucTiOM  Sheet  • 


/ 


JMK.       POT 


FIGi-ft-   5TILL    LIFE     GeOUP- 


BOOKl 


flGB-    STILL    UFe    GeOUP     AMALYZIED 
AHD    eC50LYED     IhTO    DE5I&M 
ELCnEHTS     ADAPTED    TO    HATCeiAL  • 


FiCi     C-  ADAPTATlOn    TO    STAIHED 

suEFACE    EneiciinenT  of.  a 

BOOkC    STALL- 


2cs: 


FIG  ■  D  ■    ADDITIONAL  DATA 
SUPPLIED    FOR  COM 5Tf^L)CTl\/E 


Plate  40 


[131] 

Figure  245  again  reverts  to  artificial  motives,  illustrated  in  free 
balance.  The  jet  of  steam  is  the  unifying  factor  which  brings  the 
cup  into  harmony  with  the  enclosing  space.  Figure  246  shows 
illustrations  of  free  balance  and  border  enrichment  from  the  industrial 
market. 

INSTRUCTION    SHEET 

Plate  40  indicates  the  necessary  design  steps  for  a  panel  surface  enrichment 
correlating  with  still  life  drawing.  Note  the  connection  between  the  ink  bottle, 
pen,  and  book  as  used  to  decorate  a  book  stall. 

SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 
For    Square    Panel    Surface    Enrichment 

(a)    Draw  the  primary  rectangle  of  the  principal  surface,  appendages,  etc. 
(6)  Subdivide  into  major  vertical  and  horizontal  divisions. 

(c)  Design  simple  contour  enrichment.      Determine  location  of  zone  of  enrich- 

ment (the  panel),  the  amount  and  method  of  enriching  the  surface. 

(d)  Draw   outline  of  the  panel  which  should   be  sympathetically   related   to 

the  contours. 
{e)    Draw  diameters,  diagonals,  or  center  lines  of  the  panel.     Regard  these  as 

possible  inceptive  axes. 
(/)    Locate  points  of  concentration  on  either  diameters,  diagonals,  or  center 

lines. 
(g)   Draw  leading  lines  in  sympathy  with  the  contours  of  the  panel,  the  inceptive 

axis,  and  the  point  of  concentration. 
(h)     Clothe  the  leading  lines  with  enrichment  that  shall  be  appropriate  to  the 

structure,    the    material,    and    the    intended    service.      Note    the    result. 

Is  the  panel  agreeably  filled  without  appearing  overcrowded  or  meager? 

Several  preliminary  sketches  should  be  made. 
(0    .Add  additional  views,  dimension,  and  otherwise  prepare  tlic  drawing'  for 

shop  use. 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEM 

Design  a  glove  l)ox  and  cnricli  tlie  cover  with  a  simple  carM'd  i)aiicl  with 
marginal  panel  enriclimi'iit. 

SUMM.\RY    OF    RULES 

Enclosed  Surface  Enrk  iiment  for  Partly   Enruiikd   Panels 

Rule  ~a.  M<ir(/inol  paticl  ciirirlnm'nt  should  parallrl  or  be  related  to  the 
outlines  of  the  primary  mass,  and  to  the  panel  it  is  to  enrieh. 

Rule  7b.  Marginal  points  of  concentration  in  panels  should  be  placed  {1) 
preferably  at  the  corners  or  (2)  in  the  center  of  each  margin. 

Rule  7c.  To  insure  unity  of  design  in  panels,  the  elements  composing  the 
points  of  concentration  and  the  links  connecting  them  must  be  related  to  the  panel 
contiiur  and  to  each  other. 


[  132  ] 

Enclosed  Surface  Enrichment  for  Fully  Enriched  Panels 

Rule  7d.  The  contours  of  fully  enriched  panels  sliniild  parallel  the  outlines 
of  the  primary  mass  and  repeat  its  proportions. 

Rule  7e.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  fully  enriched  square  panel  may  be 
in  its  center  or  in  its  outer  margin. 

Rule  7f.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  fully  enriched  vertical  panel  should 
be  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  panel. 

Rule  7g.  The  fully  enriched  panel  and  its  contents  should  be  designed  in 
unified  relation  to  the  structural  outlines,  with  the  center  line  of  the  panel  coinciding 
uiih  the  inceptire  a.ris  of  the  struct  nre. 


Free  Surface  Enrichment 

Rule  8a.  Free  ornament  for  partly  or  fully  enriched  surfaces  should  be 
based  and  centered  upon  an  inceptive  axis  of  the  structure. 

Rule  8b.  Free  ornament  should  be  related  and  subordinated  to  the  structural 
surfaces. 

Rule  8c.  Points  of  concentration  in  free  enrichment  of  vertically  placed 
masses  are  usually  located  in  and  around  the  inceptive  axis  and  above  or  below  the 
geometric  center  of  the  design. 

Postulate:  Surface  enrichment  shonld  be  inseparably  linked  to  the  surface 
and  to  the  outlines  or  contours. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  panel.' 

2.  State  three  sections  or  areas  at  which  a  panel  may  be  enriched.     Give  reasons 

for  selecting  a  given  area. 

3.  Explain  relation  of  point  of  concentration  to  each  section. 

4.  In  marginal  enrichment,  is  it  preferable  to  locate  the  point  of  concentration 

in  the  center  or  corner  of  the  margin.'     Why? 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  an  inceptive  axis  with  relation  to  the  unity  of  a  design.' 

What  is  its  relation  to  the  structure.' 

6.  Give  the  characteristics  and  use  of  free  enrichment. 

7.  State  the  use  of  full  panel  enrichment. 

8.  Where   may   the   point   of   concentration   be  located   in   full   square    panel 

enrichment.' 

9.  Name  six  steps  essential  to  the  designing  of  a  square  panel. 

10.  For  what  specific  purpose  is  a  vertical  rectangular  panel  adapted.' 

11.  Where  should  the  point  of  concentration  be  located  in  a  vertical  rectangular 

panel.' 

12.  Draw  a  flower  form  and  adapt  it  to  a  carved  enrichment  in  wood. 

13.  To  what  uses  are  panels  of  varied  shapes  adapted.' 

14.  How  may  artificial  objects  be  adapted  to  surface  enrichment.' 

15.  Explain  the  term  "free  balance." 


Chapter  XI 

SURFACE    ENRICHMENT    WITH    MINOR    SUBDIVISIONS 
OF   LARGE   PRIMARY   MASSES   IN   WOOD 


This  article  is,  in  part,  a  brief  summary  and  review  of  Rules 
2a,  2b,  3a,  3b,  3c  (vertical  and  horizontal  major  divisions)  with 
application  to  minor  subdivisions.  By  minor  spacings  or  sub- 
divisions in  wood  work  we  refer  to  the  areas  occupied  by  drawers, 
doors,  shelves,  and  other  small  parts  subordinated  in  size  to  the  large 
or  major  divisions  such  as  large  front  or  side  panels,  etc.  These 
smaller  or  minor  subdivisions  in  wood  work  are  bounded  bv  runners, 
rails,  guides,  and  stiles  depending  upon  the  form  of  construction  and 
character  of  the  minor  subdivision.  Major  (Hvisions  are  often 
bounded  by  legs,  table  tops,  and  principal  rails. 

It  is  an  interesting  and  useful  fact  that  rules  governing  major 
divisions  generally  apply  eciually  well  to  minor  ones.  There  are  a 
few  exceptions  and  additions  to  be  noted  in  their  aj)j)r()j)riate  j)laces. 

When  minor  subdivisions  are  well  ])lanned  tliey  su})})ly  one  of 
the  most  interesting  forms  of  surface  enrichment  or  treatment,  for 
if  we  consider  paneling  an  ap])roj)riate  form  of  decoration,  we  are 
equally  privileged  to  feel  that  each  small  drawer  or  door  adds  its 
quota  of  interest  to  the  sum  total  of  the  entire  mass.  AYe  are  equally 
justified  in  accenting  tliese  drawers  or  doors  with  ])anel  decoration 
or  otiier  forms  of  surface  enriclimeiit  provided  that  harmony  is 
maintained. 

These  minor  subdixisions,  ])ro])erly  eiu'iched,  may  become  ecjual- 
izers,  or  elements  wiiicli  adjust  the  design  to  the  character  of  the 
surroundings  destined  lo  i-cceive  the  ])roject  of  which  th(\v  are  a  part. 

AVilh  reference  to  the  ilhist  ral  ions,  h'igurc  247,  Plate  41,  shows  a 
simple  minor  ])anel  treatment  falling  nndcr  \{\\\c  3a.  Single  or 
preferably  double  band  inlay  niiglil  have  been  suitably  substituted 
for  the  sunken  ])anels.      As  maiix  eiaftsmen  nvc  not  ])roj)erly  e(|uij)})ed 


Minor 
Subdivisions 


Vertical 
Sections  and 
Their 
Divisions 


[134] 

5UR.FACE   EMI^ICHMEMT  AMD  MINOR.  "SPACEI  D>V1DI0M^ 

FO!S- LAl^GE.    FR-lhAA^V      MASSES    IH     >/VOOO  •  •  • 
•  ACCEMTUATtOH     OP"    HlMOR_VE-iSXlCAu  OlV\;S>IOM  S  - 


FIG-Z4-1-    TWO  VERTICAL 
AMD  tQUALDlVISlOMS-  3^• 


TlCAl-    DIVISIONS  •   3E)- 


FIG- 24-9-   THEE.E    VEF^TICAL. 
OWISIOMS  •    3B-  niNOJe.  2>A 


F1G-Z50-     THElEE.   VERTIOAU 
DivlOIOHS    •    SB-    MlHOte  •  2.Av 


FlG-25l-THl^EE  VQ^iCAL 

DIV1S1QH5CWITHOUT  T^EPE-TlTCfl 

IH  APPEMOAGE) -^-A-    MJNORL-2.A- 


FIG-  25ZTHKEE  VERTICAL.  Dw  iS  10N5 
K.EFEATE.O  IH  APPEHDA&E.  •    -40  • 


Plate  41 


[135] 


to  produce  inlays,  it  is  practicable  to  use  stock  inlays,  thus  simplifying 
the  process. 

In  a  three-part  design  it  is  the  designer's  desire  to  gain  the  effect 
of  lightness  and  height  by  the  use  of  Rule  3b.  As  a  simple  treatment 
of  a  three-part  design.  Figure  248  needs  little  comment.  Figures 
249  and  250  are  examples  of  dividing,  by  means  of  minor  divisions, 
the  outer  sections  of  a  three-part  design. 

The  small  drawers  in  the  right  and  left  sections  of  Figure  250 
might  have  been  improved  in  proportion  by  again  applying  Rule  2a 
to  their  design,  thereby  varying  the  measure  of  their  heights.  The 
enclosed  panel  enrichment  affords  pleasing  variety  to  the  otherwise 
unvaried  front  panels.     Rule  7g. 

Figures  251  and  252  show  unbroken  drawer  runners  continuing 
through  all  three  vertical  sections,  thus  definitely  binding  these 
sections  together.  It  is  seen  that  this  device  is  conducive  to  unity, 
whenever  two  or  three  vertical  divisions  have  been  used. 

Figure  252  is  a  repetition  of  Figure  251,  but  shows  the  echo  or 
continuation  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  primary  mass  into  the 
appendage.  The  use  of  the  single  or  double  band  enrichment  still 
further  binds  the  minor  subdivisions  of  the  primary  mass  into  ideal 
unity  with  the  appendage. 


Minor  Sub- 
divisions of 
Three  Verti- 
cal Major 
Parts  or 
Divisions 


Unbroken 

Vertical 

Divisions 


Sequential  Progression  of  Minor  Horizontal  Space  Divisions 

Rule  2c.  A  primary  mass  may  be  divided  iuio  three  or  more  smaller 
horizontal  masses  or  seetions  by  placing  the  larger  mass  or  masses  at  the 
bottom  and  by  seqnentially  reducing  the  height  measure  of  each  inass 
toicard  the  smaller  division  or  divisions  to  be  located  at  the  top  of  the  mass. 

Rule  2c.  Let  us  now  imagine  the  center  section  of  a  three-part 
design  to  l)e  removed  and  extended  upward.  Its  transformation 
by  this  process  into  a  cal)inet  or  chiffonier  similar  lo  Figure  253, 
Plate  42,  introduces  the  new  prin('i])le  of  sequodial  progression. 
Instead  of  adhering  to  the  limitation  of  Rules  2a  and  2b,  this  arrange- 
ment shows  that  the  horizontal  divisions  ni.iy  be  grMdually  decreased 
in  liciglil  IVom  the  })oll()in  toward  llic  lop  of  llic  primai'v  mass.  By 
this  rhythmic  decrease  in  the  measure  of  I  lie  li<Mglit,  the  eye  is  led 


Sequential 
Arrangement 
of  Minor 
Horizontal 
Divisions 


136 


5U5SFACE  EMl^lCHMEnT   AHD    MlMOR      5PACE.     OIV1S10M5    FOfS. 

L/\R.GE.    PRlM/\ev   MASOE.S  IM  V\/OOD 

5EQUEhTl/\L  Al^I^^HGEME:^tT   OF  MIMORL  HO!^ \Z:OhTAL_  DlVlSlOMS    IM  OriE.OI^ 
TtiicEE.       VELlSTlCAsL      Divisions 


T 


■i 


w 


••  -a 


Fie- 253-  SinPLE. 


^ 


FIG  ■Z54- WraoHG 

MOVE-MEtiT     OF 

SEQUEIiCE :  R-EVEe^E 

TH15  PLATE   AMD  MOTE      FIG -aSS- UPPER.  MEnBER. 

THE  IMPKOVEMEHT-       OF   SEQUEIiCE  DIVIDED  BV 


5EQUE.MCE   VQ^  SIH&LE  MA5S>-    2.  C 


illll      lllll 


Fie-25<S-   5E.QUEMCE     A^PPUED 
TO   CEIiTEK.   MEMBER  OF 
VERTICAL  OlVlCSIOHS- 


Plate  4*2 


[  1-57  J 


through  an  orderly  gradation  through  kisser  areas  to  the  top,  thus 
giving  a  pleasing  sensation  of  lightness  and  variety  to  the  structure. 
By  this  method,  also,  the  large  areas  are  retained  at  the  bottom  to 
give  stability  and  solidity  to  the  structure.  A  quick  test  of  these 
conditions  may  be  made  by  reversing  Figure  *2o4,  thus  producing  a 
more  decidedly  pleasing  effect. 

This  orderly  gradation  or  sequence  of  heights  need  not  be  carried 
out  with  absolute  mathematical  precision  such  as  7-6-5-4-3-''2-l. 
Arrangements  similar  to  the  following  ])rogression  make  for  equally 
pleasing  and  more  varied  effect:  9j-8-()f-G-5-4f.  Many  design- 
ers repeat  similar  heights  for  two  neighboring  horizontal  spaces  as, 
6-5-5-4f,  but  the  upward  gradation  should  be  apparent.  Figure 
'255,  an  Austrian  motive,  shows  a  strongly  marked  sequence  with  the 
top  division  broken  by  Rule  3b.  It  is  better  practice  to  keep  such 
attempts  confined  to  the  bottom  or  top  members  of  the  sequence 
or  loss  of  unitv  mav  be  the  final  result. 

By  applying  this  principle  to  the  center  section  of  a  three-part 
design,  we  now  have  illustrated  in  Figure  ^250  the  new  sequence  in 
its  application,  and  Figures  257  and  258  are  variations  of  the 
same  idea. 

We  now  come  to  the  transitional  type  of  design  where  three 
vertical  sections  begin  to  lose  their  dominance  as  major  divisions,  but 
still  retain  their  places  in  the  design  as  minor  sections.  Re})lacing 
these  in  prominence  is  the  hon'zontal  major  section  or  division.  The 
first  immediate  result  of  this  change  as  shown  in  Plate  43  is  to  produce 
a  more  compact  surface  with  a  greater  im])ression  of  length  because 
of  the  presence  of  strongly  accented  horizontal  lines  wliich  are  always 
associated  with  horizontal  divisions.  Tliis  transitional  style  with  its 
minor  but  dominant  horizontal  divisions  would  hnnnonize  with  the 
long  horizontal  lines  of  a  room  or  similar  lines  in  I  lie  tiniiilui'e.  The 
full  expression  of  this  style  or  ly})e  w  ill  l)e  readily  seen  by  comparing 
Plates  48  and  Figures  251  and  252.  Plate  41.  Several  styles  of 
])(MMod  furniture  liaxc  been  inli'odneed  in  Plate  43  to  prove  the 
unixersality  of  these  prinei|)les  of  si)ace  (li\isions. 

Figures  259,  2(10,  and  2(12,  I*l;ile  4:5.  .-ii-e  dixidcd  by  I  luce  minor 
vert  ieal  seel  ions  en  I  by  I  wo  niiiioi'  liori/onl.il  diNMsions  with  t  he  donii- 
naiice  in  the  loircr  scdioii.       Rule  2a.      'V\\r  ;ii-i-;inL;'ciii(Mil   of  I  he  sin;dl 


Sequential 
Arrange- 
ments— - 

(Continued) 


Two 

Horizontal 
and  Ttiree 
Vertical 
Divisions 


[138] 


SURFPkCL   Ehl^lCHnEHT     AhD  MINOR.  SUB  D\V\5lOM5 
FOR  LAP^GE     PKIKIARV    MA,;^SE.5  IH  V\/OOD  • 
•THRE.E:  VE5^TlOAL  Divisions    Cf^055ED    BV    TWO     HOKIZOMTAL  DIVISIONS ' 


F1C-.  •  263  ■  THl  S     5EQUE:nTl AL 
PL/\H   OF  THE  5nALLCEMTE\^ 
DKAWEI^a  WOULD  HAVE  iHCEEASED 
the:  IhTEKESTlH   FlGUl^ES 
259    TO    2jS2- 


FIG-264--  Ati  APPROACH  TO  THJ^E-El 
HORIZONTAL  D1V\510M5  (PLATF.-4  4  ^ 
MOTE  PAMEU  EHKllCHMEr-lT  WITH  J 
IH   CEMTER- 


I 


TlAL  PLAM    FOK. 
Two  DKAWEK-S 


Plate  43 


[139] 


central  drawers  could  have  been  more  varied  by  the  application  of 
the  principle  of  sequential  progression.  Figures  "261  and  263  show 
similar  vertical  spacings  with  a  difference  in  the  arrangements  of  the 
horizontal  divisions.  In  these  figures  the  dominance  has  been  placed 
in  the  upper  section  of  the  primary  mass  by  the  division  created  by  the 
runner  above  the  lower  drawer.  It  is  likewise  seen  that  Figure  263 
needs  a  top  appendage  to  bind  the  top  into  closer  unity  with  minor 
spacings. 

In  carrj^ing  the  transitional  type  to  which  we  have  referred  in 
the  previous  paragraphs  from  the  vertical  space  influence  toward 
the  horizontal,  we  are  gradually  approaching  ihrce  minor  horizontal 
divisions,  still  maintaining  three  minor  vertical  divisions  in  a  modified 
and  less  prominent  form.  Figure  264  is  an  apjiroach  toward  three 
horizontal  divisions.  As  only  one  clear-cut  horizontal  space  division 
is  visible,  this  figure  is  not  a  pure  example.  The  upper  horizontal 
space  division  is  broken  up  into  a  three-part  design  l)y  the  drawer 
guides.  It  is  not  until  we  reach  Figure  266  that  three  horizontal 
divisions  are  clearlv  evident. 


Dominance 
of  Lower  or 
Upper 
Sections 


Transitional 
Types 


Horizontal  Divisions 

The  horizontal  minor  divisions  in  furniture  are  generally  drawer 
runners  and  the  vertical  minor  divisions  are  often  drawer  guides. 
The  horizontal  divisions  may  be  arranged  in  either  one  of  two  ways: 
first,  by  the  application  of  Rule  2b;  or  second,  by  a})plying  Rule  2c, 
the  rule  of  sequential  progression.  Figures  266,  267,  and  268, 
Plate  44,  are  representative  of  the  former  while  Figures  269  and  270 
are  tyj)ical  of  the  latter.  The  result  in  either  case  is  a  compactly 
designed  and  solid  mass  of  simple  structural  lines.  On  some  occasions 
we  find  the  three-part  rule  used  for  minor  divisions  witliin  the  hori- 
zontal sections,  while  again  the  two-j)arl  rule  is  used.  The  method 
depends  upon  the  desired  use  aud  aj)i)earauce.  In  either  case  the 
long  areas  and  large  masses  arc  lo  be  retaincui  as  far  as  j)ossible 
near  the  bottom  of  each  primary  mass,  as  this  custom  tends  to  give 
a  sense  of  solidity  to  the  design. 

Figure  271  is  a  rare  revcM'siou  lo  more  lliaii  llii'cc  NCflical  dixisioiis. 
In  this  case,  Rule  3c  has  beeu  obscrxcd  and  we  find  all  (»!'  I  he  i)an('ls 


Three  Minor 
Horizontal 
Divisions  Cut 
by  Varying 
Numbers  of 
Vertical 
Divisions 


Four 

Vertical 

Divisions 


[  UO  ] 


•  SUI^FACE:     EMKICHMEHT"     AHD  MlHOt^    SUB  DlVl3lOH^ 
FOT^    LAaSE,    P^IcUMA-^V    MA.!50E0    IN   WOOD' 
'ACCE^iTEO  HoeiZOHTAL  DlVI  510N5CTHEEE)  CUT  B.V    VEHTICAU   OIVISIQHS 


riG  ■  Z7I  (COLOMIAl) 
JSOLE^S  2.e>    AMD  3C. 


Plate  44 


141] 


are    of   equal    size.      Variety   has    been    secured    by   means    of  the 
horizontal  spacings. 

Free  Balance 

This  form  of  design  is  inherent  in  the  Japanese  system.  It  con- 
sists in  the  planning  and  balancing  of  unequal  areas  over  a  geometric 
center.  It  is  not  subject  to  definite  rules  as  is  the  more  formal 
balancing.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  xVrthur  Dow's  excellent 
book  on  Composition  for  further  discussion  of  the  subject.  Figure 
272,  Plate  45,  is  an  example  of  partly  formal  and  partly  free  balance 
and  its  method  of  treatment. 

Figures  273  and  274  are  pierced  designs,  thoroughly  related  to  the 
structure  and  in  no  way  weakening  it.  Figure  273  is  representative 
of  a  type  which,  if  carried  to  extremes,  will  cause  the  structure  to 
become  too  weak  for  service;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  guard  and 
restrict  this  form  of  enrichment.  The  carving  of  Figure  275,  com- 
bined with  the  contour  enrichment,  forms  a  pleasing  variation  to  this 
common  type  of  furniture  design. 

Small  minor  details  in  furniture  construction  should  be  designed 
with  as  much  care  as  the  larger  major  or  minor  parts.  The  larger 
areas  or  spaces  in  small  details  similar  to  stationery  shelves  and  pigeon 
holes  must  harmonize  in  proportion  with  the  space  in  whicli  th(\v  ure 
])laced  and  of  which  they  are  a  part. 

The  three-part  or  three-vertical  division  system.  Rule  3b,  is 
generally  used  to  design  the  small  details  in  furniture  as  may  be  seen 
in  Figures  27G,  277,  278,  and  279;  while  the  rule  of  se(|uence,  l^ule  2c, 
may  be  emi)loyed  again  to  subdivide  these  small  details  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction  with  as  nuich  variety  as  is  consistent  with  unity.  Figure 
280  is  a  leaded  glass  surface  enrichment  for  doors.  Note  the  leading 
lines  of  the  enriciiment  as  tliey  ])nnill('l  the  dominant  proportions 
of  the  panel  opening. 


Free  Minor 

Space 

Treatment 

Free 
Balance 


Carving 
and  Piercing 
as  Applied  to 
Large  Masses 


Small  Minor 
Details  of 
Large  Pri- 
mary Masses 


INSTRTCTION    SHKHT 

Plulc  4(!  is  ;i  lyj)i(;il  lii^jli  scIiodI  slicct   of  dcsi^'ii  pn 
accent  ll.ltiil  liy  pen  sllM(li»>^.       Sec  IM:ile  I."). 


lilriiis,   willi  the   masses 


SlMMAin     Ol'    DKSK.N    STKl'S 
(a)    to   (e).      Sec  similar  steps  in   rii.iptcr  l\. 


[  14^^  ] 


•  SUl^FACE  EMRlCHMEhT     ^HD     I^lhOR.       SU&   DlVie>lOri5 
FOR    LARGE.      PRlMARV     MA^^)0&5   IM  WOOD   • 
•Fi^EE  MlhOR   SFACIMG^  •  APPLNDAGLS  •  PIERCED  /KMD  CARVED  Eh^lCHMEhT 


Fie-ZTG- 


FlC-.-  2-78 


FIG-  277-   MINOR. 


iPA^ClMC-. 


FIG-   2.QQ 


FIG-   Z7S- 
■SULE.5    3?>-  C  ■  ETC. 


Plate  45 


[143] 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEM 

Design  a  sideboard  3  feet  3  inches  high  with  plate  rack.  The  primary  mass 
should  have  three  minor  horizontal  divisions  and  three  minor  vertical  divisions, 
with  the  horizontal  divisions  accented. 

SUMMARY   OF   RULES 

Sequential  Progression  of  Minor  Horizontal  Space  Divisions 

Rule  2c.  A  primary  riiass  may  he  divided  into  three  or  more  siualhr 
horizontal  masses  or  sections  by  placing  the  larger  mass  or  masses  at  the  bottom  and 
by  sequentially  reducing  the  height  measure  of  each  mass  toward  the  smaller  divi- 
sion or  divisions  to  be  located  at  the  top  of  the  mass. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  minor  subdivisions  in  wood  construction.' 

2.  What   is    the   effect   of   a   design    with    dominant    vertical    iii;ijiir    divisions.'' 

State  its  use. 

3.  Show  some  customary  methods  of  dividing  three  vertical   major  (11%  isioiis 

into  minor  subdivisions. 

4.  State    the    rule    of    sequential    progression.       Give    illustrations    from    tlie 

industrial  arts. 

5.  Describe  the  transitional  stage  between  the  point   where  tiie  dominance  of 

the  vertical  motive  ceases  and  the  horizontal  influence  begins. 

6.  What  is  the  effect  of  a  design  with  doniinanf   horizontal   major   divisions.' 

State  its  use. 

7.  Show  some  customary  methods  of  subdividing  horizontal   major  divisions 

into  minor  subdivisions. 

8.  What  should  be  the  relation  in  a  design  between  the  details  of  a  ])rojeet  and 

the  divisions  of  the  primary  mass? 


[  144 


Chapter  XII 

SURFACE   EXKICHMEXT   OF    CLAY 

In  some  respects  the  surface  enrichment  of  clav  is  similar  to     ^  •    -.  .- 

1  e  1  £  1        1         •     -1     •  1      '  1  1       •    1  •        Limitations 

that  oi  wood  as,  tor  example,  the  snnilarity  produced  by  mlays  m     f^j.  Surface 

clay  and  in  wood.  On  the  other  hand  the  enrichment  of  clay  is  Enrichment 
unhampered  by  the  restricting  effects  of  unequal  resistance  of  the 
material,  such  as  the  grain  of  wood.  Again  it  is  limited  to  those 
effects  or  forms  of  enrichment  that  are  capable  of  withstanding  the 
intense  heat  to  which  ceramic  decoration  is  subjected.  See  Frontis- 
piece. ■ 


■LI    H^^HH^ 

■■■ 

^^V  ^          iT       u^^Ihb^^^^^  ^^^  ^Sl 

Oi^VtH 

V    ''-*^^-  J^SK^tm     1 

O^^fli^l         ^^^^H 

^^gl^Hp        j^ 

Ih^H'        ^i^^^H 

HL^JU 

^^■iil^^l 

('i)iirlfsy  of  I  lie  Rookirooil  J'uttcrivs 


Figure  :^81. —  Filliim'  llio  Sair^ars  hcforo  Firiiiif 


Before  proceeding  willi  ;i  design   il    i^  well  for  one  lo  imdcrsl.-iiid 

clearly   tlie   possibilities  of  r\:iv   curicliiiM  iil .      lie    iiin^l    know    \\li;il  ^ 

*  *  DccorfltivG 

kind  of  designs  are  best  suited  io  chiy  .-is  a  nicdiuin.  to  I  lie  intended  Processes  of 

service,  and  to  the  nil  imate  a])])li(;it  ion  of  I  li(>  lieat  of  t  lie  jx)!  teiy  kiln.  Surface 

AVilhoul  entering  into  teclnn'calit  ies  let  us  briefly  discuss  the  follow-  Enrichment 


[  14G] 


Figure  282.—  Stacking  the  Kiln 


Courtesy  The  Rookwood  Potteries 


[147] 

ing  processes.     The  first  three  deal  with  finger  and  tool  manipulation     Forms  of 
of  the  clay  body  and  are  consequently  the  simpler  of  the  processes.     Manipulation 
The  last  five  are  concerned  chiefly  with  the  addition  of  coloring 
pigments  either  to  the  clay  or  to  the  glaze  and  are,  therefore,  more 
complex  in  character. 

Processes 

Rule  9a.  Surface  enrichment  of  clay  must  be  so  designed  as  to  be 
able  to  ivithstand  the  action  of  heat  to  which  all  ware  must  be  submitted. 

Rule  9b.  hicised,  pierced,  and  modeled  decoration  in  clay  should 
be  simple  and  bold  and  thus  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  material. 

1.  This  is  the  simplest  form  of  enrichment,  a  process  familiar 

to  the  earliest  primitive  potters  and  appropriate  now  for  beginners.  Incising 
It  consists  of  the  process  of  lowering  lines  or  planes  into  the  clay  body 
to  the  depth  of  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  These 
lines  or  planes  should  be  bold  and  broad.  They  may  be  made  with 
a  blunt  pencil  or  a  flat  pointed  stick.  A  square,  rectangular,  or 
round  stick  may  be  used  as  a  stamp  with  which  to  form  a  pattern  for 
incising.  Illustrations  of  simj)le  incising  may  be  found  in  Figures 
283,  284,  295,  319,  330.     The  tiles  shown  are  about  six  inches  square. 

2.  This  process  is  less  common  and,  as  its  name  implies,  is  carried 

out  by  cutting  through  the  clay.     It  may  be  done  with  a  fine  wire.     Piercing 
Either  the  background  or  the  design  itself  may  be  thus  removed. 
The  eft'ect  produced  is  that  of  liglitening  an  ()l)ject  such  as  the  top 
of  a  hanging  flower  holder,  a  window  fl.owcr  box,  or  a  lantern  sliade. 

3.  Bv  adding  clav  to  I  lie  main  bodv,  and  1)V  working  this  clav 

iiilo  low  relief  flower  or  geometric  forms,  one  has  the  I)asic  process  of  Modeling 
modeling.  The  slightly  raisetl  areas  of  clay  form  a  pleasing  ])lay 
of  light  and  shade  that  varies  the  otherwise  ])lain  surface  of  tiie  ware. 
The  process  should  be  used  with  caution,  for  over-modeling,  1^'igure 
325,  will  obstruct  the  structural  outlines  and,  because  of  ils  oxer 
prominence  as  decoration,  will  cease  to  i)e  surface  ennchNicnt.  in 
the  technical  language  of  the  designer  over-modeling  is  an  enrichnuMit 
which  is  not  subordinated  to  the  surface.  In  articles  intcMidcd  for 
service  this  high  relief  modeling  is  nnsanilary  and  nnsatisfaelory. 
Figures  28()  and  287  sliow  incising  with  slight  modeling,  while 
324,  328,  and  329  are  examj)les  of  more  complex  enrichment. 


[148] 


Plate  47 


[149] 


With  the  introduction  of  the  second  group  comes  an  added  interest 
and  difficulty,  that  of  the  introduction  of  color.  Pigments  that  will 
withstand  the  application  of  heat  are  suggested  at  different  points. 

4.  This  process  consists  of  removing  certain  areas  from  the  clay 
body  to  the  depth  of  one-eighth  inch  and  filling  in  the  depression  with 
tinted  clay.  Tints  formed  Ijy  the  addition  of  ten  per  cent  or  less  of 
burnt  umber  or  yellow  ochre  to  the  modeling  clay  will  give  interesting 
effects.  Figures  284,  285,  320,  and  321  show  forms  which  may  be 
developed  by  this  process. 

Sgraffito,  an  Italian  process,  is  more  difficult  than  inlaying,  but 
the  effect  is  similar.  A  thin  layer  of  colored  clay  is  placed  over  the 
natural  clay  body,  and  the  design  is  developed  by  cutting  away  this 
colored  coating  in  places,  thus  exposing  the  natural  clay  body. 
Figure  306.  There  are  variations  of  this  plan  that  may  be  attempted 
bv  the  advanced  designer. 

5.  Slip  is  clay  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream. 
For  slip  painting  this  mixture  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  not  more  than 
ten  per  cent  of  coloring  pigment  as  represented  by  the  underglaze 
colors  of  the  ceramist.  This  thick,  creamy,  colored  slip  is  then 
painted  on  the  surface  of  the  clay  l)()dy  while  danij),  much  as  the 
artist  would  apply  oil  colors.  The  ware,  when  thorough ly  dried, 
is  glazed  and  fired,  which  produces  the  effect  shown  in  Figures  290, 
291,  and  327.  The  color  range  is  large;  almost  any  color  may  be  used 
with  the  exception  of  reds  and  strong  yellows.  A  colorless  trans- 
l)arent  glaze  should  be  used  over  beginner's  slij)  i)ainting. 

6.  This  ])rocess  refers  to  the  direct  introduction  of  the  colored 
pigment  into  the  glaze.  Hy  varying  the  glaze  formula  we  may  have 
a  clear,  transparent,  or  glossy  glaze  similar  lo  Figure  317,  a  dull 
surfaced  opacjue  effect,  termed  a  matt  ghize.  Figure  332:  or  a  glossy 
but  opaque  faience  glaze  similar  to  the  blue  and  while  Dutch  tiles. 
There  are  other  forms  such  as  the  crystalline  and  "reduced"  glazes, 
bill  these  as  a  rule  are  far  beyond  the  ability  of  I  he  Ix'giiiiiiiig  crafls- 
nian  in  ceramics. 

Tt  is  possible  lo  use  these  three  tvjx's  of  gla/.e(|  smraee  in  \arioiis 
ways.  l^V)r  exam])le,  a  vase  form  willi  an  iiileresi  iiig  eoiiloiii-  may  be 
left  without  fur' her  surface  eiirieliineiil  e\ce|)l  llial  siij)pli(>(i  by  clear 
glaze  or  by   a   coloi'cd    malt    sjmil.ir   lo  ceilaiii    ly])es  of  Teco   ^^a^e. 


Introduction 
of  Coloring 
Pigments 


Inlay 


Slip 
Painting 


Colored 
Glazes 


Combinations 


[150] 


•5UKFACE     EMRllCHMEriT    OF     CL/\-Y  ' 
SHALLOW       C1R1CULA.K.   FOV^I^CS  :   PLATED)  ETC- 


KEY  TO    T3ROCE55E3    OF    EMKlCHnEhT 
B-Y  MAMIPULATIOh    OFTHE   CL/Vi'  BODY  • 

1  •    IHCISlMGi  • 

2  •    PlEKCIHQ- 

3  •    MODEUMG • 

B-^   ADDITIQM     OF     COUOR." 

A-  ■    IN  THE  CL.AY  :  iriLA'C-   SC-KAsFFlTO  ■ 

5-  UPON     THE.    CUAY;    SLIP    PAiriT^MG ' 

6-  IM   THE.    glaze; 


ACCEMTED    COMTTDOl^ 


I  clear: 


T-fPElS-.         ',    MATT 

[  OPAQUE  (FA\Ertce) 
7-    UnOEl^   THEl&LAZE  ;  UMDElCC.LAZEP'AinTlHCi 
8      UPON  -THE  glaze:  POeCELAIh   FAlHT\M<ri 
KEY  TO    ZOME5     OF    EMf^lCHMEilT 
A-    nAR.e.lN     OF   SURFACB 


F1G-Z9S-    A 


FIG' -300-     A     -6    (OPAQUE)  8 


FIG  •  30\ 


a 


FIG-   30Z-      A   •    a     CPORCELAin  PAIMTIMG^ 


FIG  •  303  •   A  •  8 


FIG  •  305-    A-8' 


F-|<S  •  3o&-    Av  •  A  (  t>C,S?ArFITO') 


Plate  48 


[151] 


It  is  likewise  possible  to  apply  transparent  glazes  over  incised  designs, 
inlay  or  slip  painting,  increasing  their  beauty  and  the  serviceability 
of  the  ware.  A  semi-transparent  glaze  is  sometimes  placed  over  slip 
painting  giving  the  charm  inherent  to  the  Vellum  Ware  of  the  Rook- 
wood  Potteries.  Figure  33*2.  Greens,  blues,  yellows,  and  browns, 
with  their  admixtures,  are  the  safest  combinations  for  the  craftsman 
who  desires  to  mix  his  own  glazes. 

7.  This  process  may  be  seen  in  the  examples  of  Newcomb  Pottery 
illustrated  particularh^  in  Figure  314  or  3^26.  The  underglaze 
pigment  is  thinly  painted  upon  the  fired  "biscuit,"  or  unglazed  ware. 
A  thin,  transparent  glaze  is  then  placed  over  the  color,  and  in  the  final 
firing  the  underneath  color  shows  through  this  transparent  coating, 
thus  illustrating  the  origin  of  the  name  underglaze  or  under-the-glaze 
painting.  Sage-green  and  cobalt-})lue  underglaze  colors  are  fre- 
(juently  used  in  Newcoml)  designs  with  harmonious  results.  The 
outline  of  the  design  is  often  incised  and  the  underglaze  color,  settling 
into  these  channels,  helps  to  accentuate  the  design.     Figure  314. 

8.  This  is  popularly  known  as  china  painting  and  consists  of 
painting  directly  upon  the  glazed  surface  of  the  ware  and  placing 
it  in  a  china  kiln  where  a  temperature  between  600  degrees  and  i)()0 
degrees  C.  is  developed.  At  this  point  the  coloring  ])igment  melts 
or  is  fused  into  the  porcelain  glaze,  thus  insuring  its  reasonal)le 
permanence.     Figure  SO^. 

The  eight  processes  briefly  described  may  be  readily  identified 
on  the  plates  by  referring  to  the  figures  corresponding  to  those 
which  number  the  processes  and  are  added  to  each  figure  number. 
Two  i)rocesses  are  sometimes  suggested  as  possible  for  one  i)r()blem. 

Ditterent  clay  forms  recjuire  different  modcvs  of  treatment.  To 
simplify  these  treatments  will  now  be  our  problem.  1 1  has  been  found 
convenient  to  form  four  divisions  based  ui)on  the  general  geomclric 
shape  of  the  ware.  Tlie  first,  IMate  47,  includes  rectangular  and 
square  areas;  the  second,  Plate  4S,  shallow  and  circular  forms; 
the  third,  Plate  49,  low  cylindrical  forms;  and  I  he  fourth,  Plat(>  .>(), 
high  cylindrical  forms.  The  first  \\\vvv  dixisions  lia\-e  distinct  modes 
of  design  treatment,  while  the  fourth  interlocks  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  the  third  method.  We  shall  now  consider  each  plate 
with  reference  to  its  use  and  possil)le  forms  of  enrichment.      For  the 


Underglaze 
Painting 


Porcelain 
or  Overglaze 
Painting 


Classification 
of  Structural 
Clay  Forms 


[  1.5^2  1 


•  5UR.FACE1  EnR-lCHMEMT    OF  C\-A.V 
•  UOW    C"^L-\nDR.ICAL_      T=^O^MS>    • 


cf: 

for  additional 

LOW  SOwL  SUG- 
GE^TlOhS-  SEE 
PLATE.  3  • 


1^^ 


HOTE. : 

THE  LETTEiS: 
FOLLOW  I MC-^  EACH 
NUMSEK    5HOW5THE 
zone  OF  EriJ^lCHMEMT-THE 
neUEE  SUGGESTS  EMi^lCHMEHT 


f-' 

r, 

Id 

I 


n  G  30T  -  D  «  S 


FIG  -SOa- A  •  60Ka 


FIG -309  -A-60S8 


L 


FIG -31 1    A-  60^5  3 


Jl!    ^M     M    i 


FIG  siz-A-Goea 


FIG  313-A-  I  -1-6  (MATT) 


mmt 


Fl<3.    ^I4--D-  l+T 


F-1&-315--   E.  •  S-  MATT 


FIG-31T-D-)-h7 

FIC-T316-  15THE 
APPROACH   TO 
Hl&HEK    FOl?n^' 
MOTE  THE    m- 
POKTAliCE  OF 
F1G-318-D   THE  VERTICAL 
I  i-  T  LINE-'  ■ 


Plate  49 


[153] 

sake  of  brevity,  the  results  have  been  condensed  into  tabulated  forms. 
Each  geometric  form  or  type  on  these  plates  has  not  only  distinc- 
tive methods  of  design  treatment  but  characteristic  locations  for 
placing  the  design  as  well.  These  places  or  zones  of  enrichment  have 
been  indicated  in  the  following  tabulated  forms  by  the  letters  in 
parentheses.  There  are  a  number  of  zones  for  each  plate.  For 
example,  Plate  47  has  its  distinctive  problems  as  tiles,  weights,  etc., 
and  five  characteristic  zones  of  enrichment  described  on  pages  153- 
155  and  indicated  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  followed  by  a 
brief  description  of  that  zone.  Each  zone  is  still  further  analyzed 
into  its  accompanying  type  of  design,  inceptive  axis,  point  of  con- 
centration, and  illustrations.  Each  plate  has  the  proper  zone  of 
enrichment  immediately  following  the  figure  number  and  in  turn 
followed  by  the  process  numl)er. 


Problems:     Tiles  for  tea  and  coffee  pots,  paper  weights,  window 
boxes;  architectural  tiles  for  floors,  and  fire  places. 

{A)  Zone  of  Enrichment:   In  the  margin. 

Reason  for  Choice:    Central  area  to  be  devoted  to  zone  of  service 

requiring  simplicity  in  design. 

Type  of  Design:    Bands  or  borders. 

Inceptive  Axis:    For  corners;  the  bisector  of  the  angle. 

Points  of  Concentration:   The  corners  and,   if  desired,  at  equal 

intervals  between  the  corners. 

Illustrations:    Figures  283,  284,  280,  287,  288. 


Square  and 
Rectangular 
Areas, 
Plate  47 


Marginal 
Enrichment 


(B)   Zone  of  Enric/uiicnt:    center  of  surface,  free  onianient. 

Type  of  Design:    Initials,  monograms,  street  numbers,  geometric     Center 

patterns,  and  other  examples  for  free  ornament.     A  star  or  dia-     Enrichment 

mond   is   not  ai)|)ropriate  enrichment  for  a   scjuare  area    uidess 

properly  related  to  the  contour  by  connecting  areas. 

Inceptive   Axes:    Vertical   or   horizontal   diameters   or   (liagonals. 

Points  of  Concentration:    Center  of  (Miibellislimciil . 

1  tin  si  rat  ions:    Figure  285. 


[lo4] 


•  SURFACE  ehkichmemt  of  clay- 

HIGH    CYLlhDE\CAl.  FORMS  •     VASES    ■  PITCH EI?S   ETC  • 

KEY  TO  zones  OF  EHl^lCHnEtiT  LETTE1?5  OM    PL/^TEAI  -TO  PROCESSES  OFEnK'ICHMEriT 

PLATE  4-2.  • 


liffiii      ^•ii 


R  illip 

L 

FIG  319A-  I 


FI&-32.0  A-4-- S         FIG3Z1A-5  3 


Fie  322    D-  8 


Fl<?.  5Z3  0-5-8 


FI6-524D-3- 


FIG  325  •  THE  APPEARAMCE  OF  AH  OVEC  - 
noDE.l_ED  EMeiCHnEMT-  IT  IS  DNSAM- 
ITA^^f    AnO  15  MOT  TT^UE  "SUf^FACE  0J?NA 


,i-c:^::r 


FIG   327    A-  6' 


^^ 


FIG.  ?)28D-3- 


MOTE.-. 

THt  CHW?AC 
TEK.Qr  MMg. 
OltlAlErtKlCH 
(•\ENr  15  ' 
Lq:>t  wHErt 

IT  li  DROP 
PED  TO 
THIS 
PQIHT 


FIG-  326  D 
•I  •   T- 


FIG  b^o    ? 


FIG  33»   ■  5-' 
•  A- 


FIG  2>-».2A-  5-- 


Plate  50 


[155] 

(C)  Zone   of  Enrichment:   full   surface   enrichment    in   a   horizontal 
position. 

Type  of  Design:  A  symmetrical  pattern  generally  radiating  from 
the  geometric  center  of  the  surface  and  covering  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  surface.  .  Horizontal 

Inceptive  Axes:    Diameters  or  diagonals  of  the  area.  Surface 

Points  of  Concentration:   At  the  corners  or  the  center  of  the  outer     Enrichment 
margin;  at  geometric  center,  as  in  a  rosette. 
Illustrations:    Figures  "^SS,  '-289,  and  291. 

{D)  Zone    of   Enrichment:    full    surface    enrichment    in    a    vertical 
position. 

"TT^     1 1 

Type  of  Design:   A  symmetrical  pattern  with  a  strong  upward  . 

^  Vcrtic3.1 

movement  and  covering  more  than  one-half  of  the  surface.  o    r 

.  .  ^     .  .  Surface 

Inceptive  Axis:   The   vertical  center  line.  Enrichment 

Point  of  Concentration:    Upper  section  of  the  surface. 
Illustrations:    Figjures   '290   and   '■292. 


'&" 


{E)  Zone  of  Enrichment:  free  ])alance  over  full  surface. 

Type  of  Design:    Semi-decorative  motive  preferably  covering  the 

entire  surface.  Free 

Inceptive  Axis:    ^Masses  freely  balanced  over  the  geometric  center     Balance 

of  the  area. 

Point  of  Concentration:    Near,  l)ut  not  in  the  exact  center. 

Illustrations:   Figures  293,  294,  295,  29(),  297,  29S. 

Note:    The  points  of  concentration  should  be  accented  by  slight 

contrast  of  value  and  hue.     See  chapters  on  color. 

Problems:    Plates,    saucers,    ash    trays,    card    receivers,    almond     Shallow 
and     candv     bowls.  Circular 

t. 

Forms, 
{A)   Zone  of  Enrichmetif:    margin  of  iiilei-ioi-  surface;  margin  of  exle-     Plate  48 
rior  surface. 

Type  of  Design:  l^ands  or  borders  thoroughly  i-cI;iI(mI  Io  the  struc- 
tural contours.  JJaiids  for  exterior  (Mirichnu'iil  may  \)v  ])lac(Ml 
directlv  on   tlic  conhdir.    P'ii>ures  299  and  .'}()!,   lliiis   t'oiiiiiiiu  an 


[  150  ] 


•  Appuve-d  /\isd    Comstr.uct»ve.   DE-<5\G.M  • 
•  f^ULE.  9  :  eriRlCHMEMT  OFTHE    PRIMARY  MA55  Bt  A  BORDER.  • 

•Pt^Oe)LEn.  EMRICHMEMT  OF     CL/\SS      2   (  POTTERY)  • 

BORDERS    AREWE.l_U     i^O/VPTED     TO     THIS       CLA55    Ar-l  O  MUST    ECHO 
OR     RA.RA>l_LE.L.     /K    DOMIMAMT   PROPORTIOM  •   THE    BOR.DE.R.    r^OST 
CAUSE    THE    E-YE     TOTRA.VE.U    >t^l    THE.    D»RE.CTIOri     CJFTHIS    PROPORXlOr-l 
HEMCE    .ALL    OF     ITS       COMPONEMT     PART^      MOST     POSSESS    eOHCERTED 
ACTION    IM  THVC)  DIRECTlOrt   OR  RHYTHrr  RHYTHM    <  5  THE  COH515TEMT    CO- 
ORDIMATIOM   OF  PARTS  THAT  ASSISTS  THE  EXE    TO     FIHD     \TS    WA^  THROUC->H 
ALL    OET>!^ILo      OF  THE     OESIGM- 


FORMAL    Bl  riYMnCTRICAL   R"EPET»TIOM 


FREE         CHPETITIOM 


•nIt  ->lr  •^\r  ->i\r  •\\r  ^^l/^  -\l/-  -Ar  -^r  -\l/-  ->!/-  ->\r 


■pfj^-^ 


p^Jii^'^rj,_ 


aiCELETOH    ©ORDERS  FOR    WALL   5(.)>?FAeES    WITH  MO:5lC  AU /MSAUO&l  e.5 


v//gK:\,d^.6^ 


-  '  •">;■":;>'!> 


..DRANA/ TWO     DESIGHS       ILLU5TRATIMG     THl^  FORM  OFENRICHnEMT 


Plate  51. —  Instruction  Sheet 


[157] 

accented  contour  (F)  or  slightly  removed  from  it,  as  in  Figure 
300,  Marginal 

Inceptive  Axes:   For  interior  surfaces,  the  radii  of  the  contour     Enrichment 
circle  generally  supply  the  axes  of  symmetry. 
Points  of  Concentration:    For  interior  surfaces,  the  points  of  con- 
centration may  be  placed  in  or  near  the  radii  of  the  area. 
Illustrations:    Figures  SO'2,  303,  304,  305,  300. 

Problems:    Cups,  pitchers,  steins,  nut  and  rose  bowls,  low  vase 
forms.  Low 

Cylindrical 
(A)   Zone  of  Enrichment:    upper  margin  of  exterior.  Forms, 

Type  of  Design:    Borders  of  units  joining  each  other  or  connected     Plate  49 
by  bands  or  spots  acting  as  connecting  links.     Rule  9c. 
Inceptive  Axes:  Vertical  elements  of  the  exterior  surface.     Ele- 
ments are  imaginary  lines  dividing  the  exterior  surface  into  any 
given  number  of  vertical  sections.     Elements  used  as  center  lines     Marginal 
form  the  axes  of  symmetry  about  which  the  butterfly  of  Figure     Enrichment 
308  and  similar  designs  are  constructed. 
Points  of  Concentration:    On  each  vertical  element. 
Illustrations:    Figures  308,  309,  310,  311,  31'-2,  316. 

{D)  Zone  of  Enrichment:   full   vertical  surface. 

Type    of   Design:    Extended    borders    with    strongly    developed 
vertical  lines  or  forms.     Less  than  one-half  of  the  surface  may  be     p  ,, 
covered.  Vertical 

Inceptive   Axes:    Vertical    elements.  Surface 

Points  of  Concentration:    In   upper  portion  of  vertical  elements,     Enrichment 
hence  in  upper  porlioii  ot*  ;ii"ea. 
Illustrations:  Figures  307,  314,  317,  318. 

(E)  Zone  of  Enrichment:    free  balance  of  full  surface.      (See  D,  above). 

Illustration:  Figure  315. 

High 
Cylindrical 

Problems:    Vases,  jars,  pitchers,  tall  flower  holders,  covered  jars     Forms, 

for  lea,  crackers,  or  tobacco,  Plate  50 


Marginal 
Enrichment 


[  158  ] 

(.4)  Zone  of  Enrichment:   margin  of  exterior. 

Type  of  Design:   Borders  of  geometric  units,  freely  balanced  floral 
units,  and  other  natural  motives  placed  in  upper  margin  of  mass. 
Inceptive  Axes:    Vertical  elements  of  cylinder. 
Points  of  Concentration:    In  upper  portion  of  vertical  elements. 
Illustrations:   Figures  319,  S-^O,  3*21,  327,  331,  332. 


FuU 

Surface 

Enrichment 


(D)  Zone  of  Enrichment:   full  surface  of  exterior. 

Type  of  Design:   Free  of  formal  conventionalized  unit  repeated 

on  each  vertical  element.     The  units  may  be  juxtaposed  or  may 

be  connected  by  bands  or  similar  links. 

Inceptive  Axes:    Vertical  elements  of  cylinder. 

Point  of  concentration:    In  upper  portion  of  vertical  elements. 

Illustrations:   Figures  322,  323,  324,  326,  328,  329. 


Types  of 

Commercial 

Pottery 


The  reader  should  carefully  consider  the  postulate  and  various 
divisions  of  Rule  7  and  try  to  applj'  them  to  the  material  now  under 
consideration.  Acknowledgment  is  made  for  material  supplied  by  the 
Rookwood  Potteries  for  Figures  288,  289,  292,  293,  294,  297,  298,  315; 
327  and  332;  Newcomb  Potteries,  Figures  314,  316,  317,  318,  326; 
Teco  Potteries,  329;  Keramic  Studio  Publishing  Company,  302,  307, 
308,  310,  312. 


INSTRUCTION    SHEET 

Plate   51    illustrates   the   marginal    surface   enrichment   of   low   cylindrical 
forms,  with  part  surface  enrichment  of  two  higher  forms. 


SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)  Draw  primary  mass: 

For  square  or  rectangular  areas  draw  square  rectangle,  etc. 

For  shallow  circular  forms  draw  a  circle. 

For  low  cylindrical  forms  draw  a  rectangle;  subdivide  this  if  desired  by  a 

unit  of  measurement  into  two  horizontal  divisions. 
For  high  cylindrical  forms  draw  a  rectangle;  subdivide  this  if  desired  by  a 

unit  of  measurement  into  two  or  three  horizontal  divisions.     Rule  5e. 

(b)  Design  simple  contour  enrichment  based  upon  these  units  of  measurement. 

(c)  Locate  zone  of  enrichment. 
id)   Draw  inceptive  axes: 

For  square  or  rectangular  areas  draw  diameters,  diagonals,  or  both. 


[159] 

For  shallow  circular  forms  draw  radii  of  the  primary  circle;  concentric 

circles  for  bands. 
For  low  cylindrical  forms  draw  the  elements  of  the  underlying  cylindrical 
form  for  extended  borders  or  lines  paralleling  the  top  or  bottom  of  the 
primary  mass  for  bands. 
For  high  cylindrical  forms  draw  inceptive  axes  similar  to  low  cylindrical 
forms, 
(e)    Locate  points  of  concentration  in  these  inceptive  axes. 
(/)    Determine  manner  and  amount  of  surface  enrichment. 
ig)    Add  leading  lines  and  develop  these  into  surface  enrichment. 
(h)   Make  potter's  working  drawing,  full  size  (See  Plate  26).     Add  the  necessary 

amount  for  shrinkage  and  otherwise  prepare  the  drawing  for  potter's  use. 
(i)    Make  a  paper  tracing  of  the  surface  enrichment  for  transfer  to  clay  body 
and  cut  a  zinc  or  tin  template  as  a  contour  guide  in  building  the  form. 


SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design  a  cider  or  chocolate  set  with  appropriate  surface  enrichment. 
Design  an  architectural  tile  6  in.  by  9  in.  for  accenting  a  brick  fireplace  in 
the  home. 


SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Rule  9a.  Surface  enrichment  of  clay  must  be  so  designed  as  to  he  able  to  with- 
stand the  action  of  heat  to  which  (ill  ware  must  be  submitted. 

Rule  \)h.  Incised,  pierced,  and  modeled  decoration  in  clay  should  be  simple 
and  bold  and  thus  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  material. 

Rule  9c.  A  border  should  not  be  located  at  the  point  of  greatest  curvature 
in  the  contour  of  a  cylindrical  form.  The  contour  curve  is  of  sufficient  interest  in 
itself  at  that  point. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  surface  enrichment  of  clay  with  that  of  wood. 

2.  State  a  major  requircincnt  of  a  good  pottery  design. 

3.  Give  the  broad  divisions  into  wliich  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  decorative  pro- 

cesses of  clay  surface  enrichment. 

4.  Name  and  briefly  describe  eight  methods  of  etiricliiii^'  tlir  surface  of  claN'. 

5.  What   precautions   should   be  exercised   witli    regard   to   tin-   u>e   of   incised, 

pierced,  and  modeled  decoration.^ 

6.  Slidiild  a  border  be  placed  at  the  jjoint  of  greatest  cur\alure  of  the  cniitdui? 

Give  reasons. 

7.  Name  method  of  classifying  structural  forms  in  clay  into  four  groups. 

8.  State    prol)lerns    and    jjossible    zones    of   enrieiinient    in    each    group.      Give 

reasons  for  choice. 

9.  State   type   of   design    unit,    conventionalized,    natural    or    artificial    forms, 

location  of  incej)ti\'e  axis,  points  of  conceiitratioii.  ami  i)roeess  for  each 
zone  of  enrich  men  I . 
in,    \\'liat  is  an  (■IciiHiil  of  a  (•viiuilrical  surface.' 


Chapter  XIII 

SURFACE   ENRICHMENT   OF   PRECIOUS   METALS 

Small  Flat  Planes 


Base  and 

Precious 

Metals 


Divisions  ' 

for 

Enrichment 


Chapter  XII  referred  to  clay  as  a  free  and  plastic  material  adapted 
to  a  wide  range  of  surface  enrichment  processes.  Metal  as  a  more 
refractory  material  offers  greater  resistance  to  the  craftsman  and  is 
relatively  more  limited  in  its  capacity  for  surface  enrichment.  As 
was  the  case  in  the  consideration  of  contour  enrichment  for  designing 
purposes,  it  is  necessary  in  the  consideration  of  surface  enrichment 
to  divide  metal  into  two  groups:  precious  and  base  metals.  As  the 
field  of  design  in  both  base  and  precious  metals  is  large,  we  shall  con- 
sider the  surface  enrichment  of  precious  metals  only  in  this  chapter. 

Following  an  order  similar  in  character  to  that  used  in  clay 
designing,  problems  in  both  base  and  precious  metals  may  be  divided 
into  four  classified  groups  as  follows:  flat,  square,  rectangular,  or 
irregular  planes;  shallow^  circular  forms;  low  cylindrical  forms; 
high  cylindrical  forms.  Designs  included  in  the  first  group,  flat 
planes,  comprise  such  problems  as  are  typically  represented  by  tie 
pins,  fobs,  rings,  and  pendants.  The  design  problems  presented  by 
these  examples  are  so  important  that  it  is  wise  to  restrict  this  chapter 
to  flat  planes. 

Rule  lOg.  The  inceptive  axis  should  pass  through  and  coincide 
with  one  axis  of  a  stone,  and  at  the  same  time  be  sympathetically  related 
to  the  structure. 

Rule  lOh.  The  position  of  the  inceptive  axis  should  be  determined 
by:  (1)  use  of  the  project  as  ring,  pendant,  or  bar  pin,  ("i)  character  of 
the  primary  ma.ss  as  either  vertical  or  horizontal  in  proportion. 

The  semi-precious  or  precious  stone  is  commonly  found  to  be  the 
point  of  concentration  of  these  designs.  The  inceptive  axes  of  tie 
pins,  pendants,  and  fobs  are  generally  vertical  center  lines  because  of 
the  vertical  positions  of  the  objects  when  worn.     The  inceptive  axes, 

[160] 


[161] 


moreover,  should  pass  through  the  point  of  concentration  and,  at  the 
same  time,  be  sympathetically  related  to  the  structure.  Rings  and 
bar  pins  are  frequently  designed  with  horizontal  inceptive  axes,  so 
determined  by  their  horizontal  characteristics  and  positions. 

The  point  of  concentration  for  tie  pins,  pendants,  and  fobs  in 
formal  balance,  in  addition  to  coinciding  with  the  inceptive  axis,  is 
generally  located  above  or  below  the  geometric  center  of  the  primary 
mass.  The  point  of  concentration  for  rings  and  bar  pins  is  placed 
in  the  horizontal  inceptive  axis  and  centrally  located  from  left  to 
right. 

As  a  step  preliminary  to  designing,  and  in  order  that  the  enrich- 
ment may  be  conventionalized  or  adapted  to  conform  to  the  require- 
ments of  tools,  processes,  and  materials,  it  is  now  imperative  to  become 
familiar  with  a  number  of  common  forms  of  surface  enrichment  in 
metal.  There  are  eight  processes  frequent h^  encountered  in  the 
decoration  of  silver  and  gold :  piercing,  etching,  chasing  or  repousseing, 
enameling,  inlaying,  stone  setting,  l)uilding,  carving.  To  these  may 
be  added  planishing,  frosting  or  matting,  and  oxidizing  as  methods 
employed  to  enrich  the  entire  surface.  p]conomy  of  material  is 
of  prime  importance  in  the  designing  of  precious  metal  and,  particu- 
larly in  gold  projects,  conservation  of  the  metals  should  be  an  urgent 
consideration  in  all  designs. 

Rule  10a.  J)c'.s{g)i.s  in  precious  mefals  should  call  for  the  iniiiiifmm 
amount  of  metal  necessarij  to  express  the  idea  of  the  designer  for  two 
reasons:    (1)  good  taste;  ('-2)  econoun/  of  material. 

A  non-technical  and  l)rief  des('ri])tion  of  each  ])r()cess  follows. 
All  designs  in  this  chapter  may  be  ideiitilied  by  rel'erriiig  to  the  ])rocess 
numbers  after  the  figun^  description  as  1,  3,  .5;  '■2,  4,  0,  corresponding 
to  the  key  numbers  on  Plate  .5'2.  A  design  to  Ix^  subnu'tted  to  the 
craftsman  should  be  a  graphic  record  of  teelinieal  facts  in  addition  to 
good  design,  which  requires  tliat  we  should  liaxc  an  ex])ressive 
technical  means  of  rendering  eaeJi  process.  The  last  ('oJuiiin,  on  Plate 
52,  indicates  this  rendering.  In  addition  lo  I  his  rendering  each  one 
of  the  eight  technical  processes  has  been  canied  Ihrongh  lhre(^  design 
steps.  1.  (first  cohnnn,  Rlate  o'-Z)  l^lanning  the  original  |)riniary 
mass,  witli  its  ine('pli\'('  axis  suggested  by  the  strnclnre  and  intended 
use.      Il     j)asses    Ihrongh     the    j)oiiil     of    conccnl  i-a  I  ion.      2.   (second 


Inceptive 
Axes  and 
Points  of 
Concentra- 
tion 


Typical 
Processes  of 
Enrichment 


Economy  of 
Material 


Evolution  and 
Technical 
Rendering  of 
Processes 


[  162  ] 


^URFACE-EMRlCHnELhT  OF  SMALL    PRIMARV    M/\55E5    in      METAL  WITH 
EVOLUTION    AhD    leEHDE^SlHG      OF    E.1GHT       FT^0CE.5C)E5  OF  Etit^lCHKEnT  • 

THL  PRI M  ARY  n ASS  coMTOi!^t?EMRK: H M EMT  ^ UR.FACE  Ett^lC  HHETIT 


1-  PlERCinG 


F1&-3M- 


2  E.TCH1HG 


FIG-33T- 


3CHA5>1MG 


F1C-.  340 


4EHAME.LUrie- 

F|6-34-b 


I 
i 


^ 


-^ 


ii-i-T-^ 


FIG-  335- 


\^ 


rLL 


I  *-?-  i 


;^ 


Fie-33<S 


riG  336 


r 

1 

FlGMl 


FIG.  344- 


FlG-339- 


IF  "^T 


""""^i^m"'""* 


? 


FIG  542, 


//^^     Mm 


^IriLAVlMG 


nCT54€) 


vfv- 


flC-.347 


1 


6  5TOnEL 
SLTTIMG 


nG  34-3  • 


r 


J 


7  BUILDIMG 


-.^^ 


7k 


^ 


FIG   35Z- 


8  ca;?vimg 


FIG  355- 


;! 


n&34« 


FIG  350 


RG  351 


:•> — c'/jj" "^ 


m 


FIG  353 


FIG  35<3 


FJCS-  354- 


m 


a 


FIG 


357- 
CO  LOt^ 


Plate  52 


[  163 


column,  Plate  52).  The  division  of  the  primary  mass  into  zones  of 
service  and  enrichment  with  the  suggestion  of  the  leading  lines  which, 
at  some  points,  are  parallel  to  the  contours  and  lead  up  to  the  point 
of  concentration.  The  contours  in  this  column  have,  in  several 
instances,  been  changed  to  add  lightness  and  variety  to  the  problem. 
3.  The  last  step  (column  three,  Plate  52)  shows  the  design  with 
graphic  rendering  suggestive  of  the  completed  process. 

Technical  Processes  and  Methods  of  Illustrating  Same 

IN  A  Design 

1.  Removal  of  design  unit  or  background  by  means  of  the 
jew^eler's  saw\  Bridges  of  metal  should  be  left  to  support  firmly  Piercing 
all  portions  of  the  design.  Test  this  by  careful  study  of  the  design. 
Rendering  —  shade  all  pierced  portions  of  the  design  in  solid  black. 
Slightly  tint  portions  of  the  design  passing  under  other  parts.  Illus- 
tration, Figure  33G. 

Rule  lOj.  All  surface  enrichment  should  have  an  appearance  of 
compactness  or  unity.  Pierced  spots  or  areas  should  be  so  used  as  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  having  been  scattered  on  the  surface  without 
thought  to  their  coherence. 

2.  Coating  either  design  or  background  with  an  acid  resistant, 
to  be  followed  by  immersion  of  the  article  in  an  acid  bath.  Allow 
the  unprotected  portion  to  be  attacked  and  eaten  by  the  acid  to  a 
slight  depth.  Rendering  —  slightly  tint  all  depressed  or  etched  parts 
of  the  design.     Illustration,  Figure  339. 

3.  The  embossing  and  fine  embeUisliment  of  a  metal  surface  by 
the  application  of  the  hanmier  ;iii<l  punches.  The  work  is  conducted 
mainly  from  the  to])  surfncc.  Rendering  —  stippl(>  nil  i);irts  of 
the  background  not  raised  by  llie  process.  Chasing  should  schmu  an 
integral  part  of  the  background  and  not  appear  sluek  upt)n  it.  Illus- 
tration, Figure  342.      Rule  lOk. 

4.  A  process  of  enameling  over  niclal  iu  which  the  ground  is  eul 
away  into  a  series  of  shallow  troughs  into  which  I  he  enamel  is  melted. 
Exercise  reserve^  in  IIk'  use  ot"  eiiauicl.  Ox'er-decoral  ion  tiMids  lo 
cheai)en  this  valuable  form  of  decoraliou.  I^eudering  shade  ihe 
lower  and  righl-hand  sides  of  all  <Mianiel(>(l  areas  lo  suggest  relief. 
Illuslraliou,  Figur<>  .'M-.>.      If  i)ossil)le  rciidci-  in  lenipera  color. 


Etching 


Chasing  or 
Repouss6ing 


Enameling 

(Champleve) 


[164] 


-  5Ui?FACL   ENRlCHriEMT  OF  5nALL   PRIMARY   riAv'b^E-^  IH    PRECIOUS  METAL 

COrlTOUR.  AMD     50KFACE.    EM5^lCHME.riT   OF    Fl_AT  PLAMECd 

PiriCb  AMD    &KOOCHES 

VERTICAL.    INCEPTIVE.  AXE^ 


FIG-556-S-    FIO  3)59-6        P16-560-6 


ncsiGMED  »•<  The 

STUnEMTS  OF  Mil- 
WAUKtE-DOWMEK 
CQLLECe.- 


^*s^^^      ^«<^^^> 


riG-361-6  n6-362-6'T-  Fl6!)53-67-       FlCT364-bT- 


FlC-'-365-6-l  ■  FlC-.' 366-5- 6 CRT         n6  35T-6-l 


ne-  36©  -  61-7- 


FlC-,-369-61-8-  FIG- 3"tO  -  €>•  \  ■  S 

HOJ^IZQMTAL  IMCEPTIVF  AXE6 


F1&-311-6-  1-  6 


FIG -372  -e>-  3  •  6  ■ 

DESIGnE.D    &Y  nibS  EDMA>  HOWAKD 
um-    OF  W16- 


Plate  53 


[165] 


Rule  lOi.  Caution  should  be  exercised  with  regard  to  the  use  of 
enamel.  Over-decoration  by  this  material  tends  to  cheapen  both  process 
and  design. 

Rule  101.  The  lanes  or  margins  between  enameled  spots  should  be 
narroiver  than  the  lane  or  margin  between  the  enamel  and  the  contour 
of  the  primary  mass. 

5.  The  process  of  applying  wire,  etc.,  to  an  incision  on  metal 

either  by  burnishing  or  fusing  the  metal  into  the  cavities.     Rendering     Inlaying 
—  tint  the  darker  metal  or,  if  possible,  render  in  color.     Illustration, 
Figure  348. 

6.  An  enrichment  of  the  surface  by  the  addition  of  semi-precious 

or  precious  stones.  Other  enrichment  is  generally  subordinated  to  Stone 
the  stone  which  then  becomes  the  point  of  concentration.  AH  Cutting 
enrichment  should  lead  toward  the  stone.  Small  stones  may,  how- 
ever, be  used  to  accentuate  other  points  of  concentration  in  surface 
enrichment.  Rendering — shade  the  lower  and  right-side  of  the  stone 
to  suggest  relief.  Pierced  subordinate  enrichment  should  be  shaded 
in  solid  black.  A  concentric  line  should  be  (h"a\vn  outside  of  the 
contour  of  the  stone  to  designate  the  thin  liolcHng  I)and,  or  bezel, 
enclosing  the  stone  on  all  sides.     Illustration,  Figure  3,51. 

Rule  10(1.  Surface  enrichment  should  at  some  point  parallel  the 
contours  of  both  primary  mass  and  poitd  of  concentration,  especially 
ivhenever  the  latter  is  a  stone  or  enamel. 

Rule  lOe.  In  the  presence  of  either  stone  or  ludiitcl  as  a  point  of 
concentration,  surface  enrichment  should  be  regarded  as  an  unobtrusive 
setting,  or  background. 

Rule  lOf.  Stone  or  enamel  used  as  a  point  of  couccntrnfioii  slioidd 
form  contrast  wifJi  the  metal,  either  in  color.  hriUiaiicy.  or  nduc.  or  idl 
three  combined. 

7.  The  process  of  applying  leaves,  wir(\  grains,  and  oIIkm*  foi-ms 

of  surface  enriclim(Mi!    lo  llie  ])laiie  of  lh<>  iikMjiI.      These  may  after-     Building 
wards    be    cafxcd    of    clmscd.      RciidiM-iiig        sliade    tlic    lower    and 
righl-hand  lines;  sliglilly  liiil    I  lie  lowci-  ])l;iii<\s  of  lli(>  niclal.      Illus- 
tration, Figure  3.54. 

S.  The  |)r()cess  of  depressing  or  r.-iisliig  cci-l.-ii!!  |)orlloiis  of  the 
mcl.'il  surface  bv  means  of  chisels  .-iiid  ur;i\crs.  \\\  I  he  ii^c  of  i\\csv 
loots  the  surface  is  modehMl  iiilo  pl.-iiics  of  liulil  ;iii(l  >li;i(l('.  lo  which 


[166] 


Figure  372a. —  Tie  Pins 


Courtesy  nf  llic  Eh'crhoj  Coloiuj 


T 


wimmm 


Figure  372b.—  Tie  Pins 


Courtesy  of  the  Elverlioj  Colony 


[  167 


interest  is  added  if  the  unaggressive  tool  marks  are  permitted  to  remain 
on  the  surface.  Rendering — shade  the  raised  and  depressed  portions 
to  express  the  modehng  j)lanes.  As  this  is  a  difficult  technical  pro- 
cess the  designer  is  advised  to  model  the  design  in  plastelene  or 
jewelers'  wax  first.     Illustration,  Figure  357. 

Rule  10k.  Built,  carved,  and  chased  enrichment  should  have  the 
higher  planes  near  the  point  of  concentration.  It  is  icell  to  have  the 
stone  as  the  highest  point  above  the  primary  mass.  When  using  this 
form  of  enrichment,  the  stone  should  never  appear  to  rise  abruptly  from 
the  primary  mass,  but  should  be  approached  by  a  series  of  rising  planes. 

9.  The  process  of  smoothing  and,  at  the  same  time,  hardening 
the  surface  of  the  metal  with  a  steel  planishing  hammer.  The  ham- 
mer strokes  give  an  interesting  texture  to  the  surface  which  may  be 
varied,  from  the  heavily  indented  to  the  smooth  surface,  at  the  will 
of  the  craftsman.  The  more  obvious  hammer  strokes  are  not  to  be 
desired  as  they  bring  a  tool  process  into  too  nuich  prominence  for 
good    taste.     Rendering  —  print    desired    finish    on    the    drawing. 

10.  A  process  of  sand  blasting  or  scratch  brushing  a  metal 
surface  to  produce  an  oi:)a(iue  or  "satin"  finish.  Rendering  —  sim- 
ilar to  planishing. 

11.  A  process  of  darkening  the  surface  of  metal  by  the  application 
of  chemicals.  Potassium  sulphite  will  supply  a  deep,  rich  black  to 
silver  and  copper.     Rendering  —  see  Planishing. 

The  eleven  processes  mentioned  above  are  among  those  which, 
})y  recent  common  practice,  have  become  familiar  to  the  craftsman 
in  precious  metals,  AVliile  they  do  not  cover  I  lie  entire  field,  they 
at  least  give  the  beginner  an  opportunity  to  design  inlelhgently  in 
terms  of  the  material. 

Plate  53  is  mainlv  the  enrieliment  of  I  lie  Hal  i)Iaiie  bv  I  he  addition 
of  semi-precious  stones  (process  six).  Whalever  surface  (Mirichnient 
is  added  lo  this  design  })ecomes  dependent  (Miriehment  and  (|nite 
analogous  to  dependent  contour  enrichment,  IMale  '29,  inasmuch  as 
it  has  to  ])(*  dcsig'TKMl  with  special  reference  to  the  sha])e  and  chai-actcr 
of  the  slonc.  l^'ignres  358  lo  3().'>  arc  examples  of  dcpcndciif  confour 
enrichment;  r'igurcs  3(11-  to  371  are  e\anij)les  of  dependent  .s/irface 
enrichmenl.  I'igiires  35S  to  ')(!7  are  based  iij)()n  rcrlical  inceptive 
axes   as   ai)|)ropi-iate    lo    I  heir   inlcmlcd    sei-\ice.      The   |)oi!il    of  con- 


Carving 


Planishing 


Frosting 


Oxidizing 


Design  of 
Pins  and 
Brooches 


Dependent 
Surface 
Enrichment 
for  Pins 


[168] 


5URFACE  EMKlCHriEMT  OF    SMALL  PRIMARY   MA55ES  IM  PRECIOUS  METALS 
•   COhTOUR  AMD    SURFACE     EtiRlCHMEHT  APPUED  TO  FOBS  • 
MAIML^      FULL-    SO i^ FACE     ElMRlCHMEMT     BASED   UPOM  VCI^Tl  CAL. 

1MCE.PTIVE     AXE£> 

^)         iPt        if>^ 


4 .1 


FIC-.374--l-0-e 


F1Ct313-  I  -e   e> 


F1C-1-57S-  1-6-7- 


EMi^lCHnEnT    OF  FLATPLATIES 
IN   VEETTIO^U  F03\TlOri5  • 


FIG.    BT6-    I-  3-6' 


r 


'<"-/eMm,aiixi^i 


FIG -311-   I-  FIG -373- 1-&-7-  OESlGhlED  P)Vm^t)E    HOWARD     FIG   37Q- I  •  4-- 


DESIGMED  BY 
niSS    EDMA 

HONrVARD- — 

UHl    OF  Wii' 


FIG    360  -  I  •  6-  BX  MR  HAA:!)- 


FIG.  3ai-6-3-7 


YiC^  3SZ  -  3  •  <5 


Plate  54 


[169] 

centration  may  be  located  at  practically  any  point  on  this  inceptive 
axis,  provided  the  major  axis  of  the  stone  coincides  with  the  inceptive 
axis.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  placing  the  stone  a  little 
above  or  below  the  exact  geometrical  center  of  the  primary  mass. 

Figures  368  to  372  show  articles  based  upon  a  horizontal  inceptive 
axis.     The  stone,  in  accordance  with  formal  balance,  is  in  the  geo-     inceDtive 
metric  center  from  left  to  right.     One  notices  the  important  fact  that     Axes 
the  surface  enrichment  must  bring  the  stone  and  contour  together     for  Pins 
in  sympathetic  relation  and,  at  the  same  time,  be  related  to  both 
stone  and  contour.     This  again  brings  out  the  meaning  of  dependent 
surface  enrichment.     The  contour  enrichment  is  to  be  kept  as  simple 
as  possible  and  the  interest  concentrated  upon  the  surface  enrichment. 
The  accentuation  of  both  surface  and  contour  enrichment  in  a  single 
design  marks  the  height  of  bad  taste  in  design. 

Rule  10b.  Contour  and  surface  enrichment  should  never  appear 
to  compete  for  attention  in  the  same  design. 

Plate  54  shows  flat  planes,  the  service  of  which  suggests  vertical 
inceptive  axes.  Figure  380  is  noted  as  an  exception  to  this  vertical  Fobs 
inceptive  axis  as  it  possesses  a  vertical  primary  mass  Init  with  radial 
inceptive  axes.  The  interesting  manner  l)y  which  the  dynamic 
leaves  of  the  outer  border  transmit  their  mo\'ement  to  the  inner 
border,  which  in  turn  leads  toward  the  point  of  concentration,  is 
worthy  of  attention.  The  points  of  concentration  in  other  designs 
on  this  plate  are  all  contained  in  the  vertical  inceptive  axes. 

Plate  DO,  at  first  thought,  would  seem  to  fall  under  the  classi- 
fication of  low  cylindrical  forms  but  when  reference  is  made  lo  1^'igure  Rings 
38.)  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  ring  has  to  be  first  developed  as  a  flat 
j)lane,  to  be  afterwards  bent  inio  the  refiuircd  form.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  ke(>])  tlie  design  u.-ircow  (Mioiii^li  lo  be  \isil)l(>  wIhmi  tlie  ring 
is  in  j)osition  on  the  finger. 

The  long  horizontal  b.-md  of  the  ring  sn])])lies  the  motive^  for  the 
horizontal  inceptive  axis  as  a  common  basis  or  sl;irting  })()inl  for  a 
large  mimber  of  designs.  If  the  dcvsigner  so  desires,  the  vertical 
axis  of  the  fingei-  is  authority  for  an  elliptical  stone  lo  be  j)laced  with 
its  major  axis  as  a  \'erlieal  line  in  harmony  with  I  he  finger  axis.  In 
any  instance  the  (hvsigner  seeks  lo  le;i<l  the  eye  from  the  horizontal 
j)ortion  of  the  i-itig  'the  fingei-  bniidt   toward  the  j)oint  of  concenlra- 


[170] 

SURFACE    ErlRlCHMEMT   OF    SMALL  PK.IMARY     ri/\S 5 E5  IH  PRECIOUS  METAL* 

EHKlCHMErlT      OF      FLAT    PLAMES 


Fi&  as 2.  -  e>  •  I  Ario  6  •  7 


-.^—. 


FIG  384  -e-4-  -a 


nG-385-THLEVOLUTIOM 
OF  A  Rin6DE61C-.n--l  PRI- 
MARY riAS5  •  2  •  CQMTQUK  EH- 
RKt-- 5  SURFACE  ErtRHT- 


FIG    566  -  e  •  8 


FIG  3»7-e-7 

iriTKODUCtO  TO  iHovVTri 
MEED  OFfv  VERTICAL -f 


FiC-.-3&&-6-  6- 


FiC-.      ci&3    -6   1  AI10  6  ■  a 


FIG    390-mmLt-6T  8 


riOTE:   THE    DESIGM^    AKE.   nAlML-f   BASED    UPOrl   HqRIZOMTAU 
IHCEPTIVE    AX.E5  •     SEE    F\G  "  3e.7  • 

FIGURES  304--6-8S  WERE  OESi&HED    6Y  f1lS!>  EDMA  HOWARD 

^J^J.  1-   OF  W13  • 

Plate  55 


[171] 


Courtesy  of  the  Elt'crhaj  Colony 


Figure  390a. —  Rings 


tion  (the  stone),  by  means  of  surfaee  enriehnienl.  A  long  sloping 
contour  curve  helps,  as  a  transition  line  in  the  l)oun(lary,  to  carry 
the  attention  from  the  stone  to  the  finger  band.  A  great  number  of 
devices  are  used  to  complete  a  similar  transition  in  the  surface 
enrichment.  Figure  39()a.  Too  nuich  piercing  weakens  the  struc- 
ture, and  it  is  therefore  to  be  avoided. 

Plate  56  suggests  some  verlicnl  flat  j)lanes  for  jx'iidants.  AVhile 
no  definite  rule  can  be  staled  for  llie  location  of  the  stone,  from  past 
experience,  it  is  easier  for  beginners  to  place  the  stone  on  the  \'erlical 
inceptive  axis  slightly  al)ov(^  the  geometric  center  of  tlu^  ])rimary 
mass.  Figures  31)1  to  39,3.  A  design  thus  formed  is  l(>ss  likely  to 
appear  heavy,  although  there  is  nothing  arl)itrary  about  the 
suggestion. 

Rule  lOc.  I\irls  of  (i  dcfiif/n  (lijj'cn'ur/  i)i  finirfion  should  differ  in, 
appearance  but  be  co-ordinated  with  the  entire  desujn. 

In  pendant  design  the  snrface  ein'ieliment  generally  carries  the 
attention  from  tlie  eontoni-  of  tlie  ixMid.iiil  lo  llie  stone,  thns  insnring 


[172] 


'SUI^PACE  LMRICHMENT  OF     SKALL    PRlir^ARY  MASSES  iM  PKLC10U5  METAL' 


EMRllCHMEHT   OF    FLAT  PLAriE.S    OF 
PEMDAMTO-  CHAINS  •  LOCK:e.TC5  • 


■ty —  r 


Q 


FI&-391-0-2. 


FO& 


.! 


^«gr- 


'1 


/i' 


r 


F\G-394-61  Fie   395  -6- 1 

DE51C.MtD  6Y  fliSS  EKOSEMCRAMZ 
FlC-.-39e-2-5-  UHVJFVM.- 


FIG     39a  -  6-6 

OESI&tiEO   ft^mSS  E    HOWAED 

UMi  or  Y<ic>- 


FlG-400-6-fi 


flOTE    FICt  367  • 


FIG    399    -  e.-3     S  • 

DES16tHED  9f  MliJ  E-  HOWAeo 


FIG  •  401  -  e>-i  -T  • 

OESlOrlED    6i    STUDEMT5    OF  MILWAUKEE.- DOWNEK  Coa.EC-.E 


Plate  5G 


[  173  ] 

unity  at  this  point,  while  the  contour  Hues  often  lead  the  attention  Pendants 
from  the  pendant  to  the  chain.  The  eye  should  move  in  unbroken  and  Chains 
d\'namic  movement  from  pendant  to  chain.  Tlie  chain  may  have 
points  of  accent  designed  to  vary  the  even  distribution  of  the  links. 
These  accents  are  frequently  composed  of  small  stones  with  surface 
enrichment  sympathetically  designed  in  unity  with  pendant,  chain, 
and  stone.  Figure  401  shows  examples  of  this  arrangement  and 
similarly  the  need  of  a  horizontal  inceptive  axis  to  harmonize  with  the 
length  of  the  chain.  These  small  accents  are  quite  similar  in  design 
to  bar  pin  motives. 

Rule  10m.      Transpareni  and  opaque  stones  or  enamel  should  not 
be  used  in  the  same  design. 

For  the  designer's  purposes  we  may  consider  two  kinds  of  stones, 
the  transparent  and  the  opaque.     These  should  not  be  mixed  in  one     Relation 
design.     The    most   favorable    stones    are    those   forming   contrasts     of  Stones 
of  value  or  l)rilliancy  with  the  metal  as,  for  example,  the  amethyst,     to  Metal 
lapis  lazuli,  or  New  Zealand  jade,  with  silver;  or  the  dark  topaz,  or 
New  Zealand  jade,  with  gold.     Lack  of  these  contrasts  gives  dull, 
monotonous  effects  that  fail  to  nuike  the  stone  the  j)oint  of  concen- 
tration.    Figure  407.     These  effects  may  be  partially  overcome  by 
frosting,  j^lating,  or  oxidizing  the  metal,  thus  forming  stronger  con- 
trasts of  value 


IXSTRI(  TIOX    SHKKT 

Plates  m  and  57  arc  ri-prfsontative  of  tlio  steps,  processes,  and  problems 
for  school  use. 


SUMMAin'    OF    DESIGN    STKPS 

(a)    Draw  tlic  primary  mass. 

(6)    Locate  the  inceptive  axis  in  this  primary  mass  with  its  direction  (h-termined 

})y  the  ultimate  use  or  position  of  the  primary  mass  and  its  general  shai)e. 
(c)    Locate  zone  of  enrichment, 
(rf)    Locale  I  mint  nf  concent  r.it  inn  in  t  lie  zone  of  ciiriciimcnt  and  in  t  he  iiircpl  ive 

axis. 
{e)    Dcsif^n  simple  cnnlour  cnriciinii'iit . 
(/)    Desifjn   leading  lines   in   syinpalliy    with    lln'  i-onlcmr    and    leading    toward 

I  lie  piiin  I   of  conrcnl  r:i  t  ion. 
{g)    Klaliorale    the   leading   lines   in   symi)a(Iiy    with    the   material,    tlir    type   of 

enrichment .  the  contours,  and  t  hi-  incepti\'e  axis. 
{h)    Render    in    the    ti(  hnieai    ni;inner    suggested    l>\     I'late    .">'-2,    dimension    the 

pii  ni;ir\   mass,  a  in  I  ot  In  ■r\\  i^e  pri|i.in'  the  dr.iw  ing  for  sho|)  use. 


[174] 


Courtesy  of  the  Elverhoj  Colony 

Figure  401a. — Pendants 


[175] 


Hi 


tgtttmmaim 


Figure  40'2. —  Pendants 


Lvurtcsy  of  Ihe  Elverhnj  Colony 


SUGGESTED    PROBLEM 

Design  a  huilt-tij)  ring  using  an  elliptical  calniciion  ciil  .stone  as  the  point  of 
concentration.     The  inceptive  axis  is  vertical. 


.      SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Small    Flat    Planes 

Rule  10a.  Designs  in  precious  metals  should  call  for  the  niiniwum  amount 
of  metal  necessary  to  express  the  idea  of  the  designer  for  two  reasons:  {1)  good 
taste;  (£)  economy  of  material. 

Rule  lOl).  Contour  and  surface  enrichment  should  nercr  appear  to  compete 
for  attention  in  the  same  design. 

Rule  KIc.  I'arts  of  a  design  differing  in  function  should  differ  in  appearance 
but  be  co-ordinated  with  the  entire  design. 

Rule  lOd.  Surface  enrichment  should  at  some  point  parallel  the  contours  of 
both  primary  mass  and  point  of  concentration,  especially  ichenerer  the  latter  is  a 
stone  or  enamel. 

Rule  lOe.  In  the  presence  of  either  stone  or  enamel  as  a  point  of  concentration, 
surface  enrichment  should  be  regarded  as  an  unobtrusive  setting,  or  bach-ground. 

Rule  lOf.  Stone  or  enamel  used  as  a  point  of  concentration  should  form 
contrast  irith  the  nielal.  either  in  c<di)r,  brilliancy,  or  raluc,  or  nil  three  combined. 

Rule  lOg.  The  incept  ire  axis  should  pass  through  and  coincide  with  one  axis 
of  a  .stone,  and  at  the  same  time  be  sym pathetically  related  to  the  structure. 

Rule  lOh.  The  position  of  the  inceptire  axis  should  be  determined  by  (/)  use 
of  the  project  as  ring,  pendant,  or  bar  pin,  (J)  character  if  Ihe  primary  mass  as 
either  rertical  or  horizontal  in  proportion. 

Rule  lOi.  Caution  should  be  exercised  uith  regard  to  the  use  of  enamel.  Over- 
decoration  by  this  luultrial  lends  to  cheapen  both  process  and  design. 


[  176] 


l^ULE.5    IO-A-TO-M:    5UI^FACE.  EhRICHMEMT  of  Sr^ALL 
FLAT    PLJ\ME5     OF     Pi^EClOU,5    METAL-^=  INCEPTIVE AX15 

•  lH5TI^UCT10H   5HEE.T' 


.^- 


■"PEMDAvhT^  ■  f^lMGS  AMD  FOB5  IN  SILVER. 


DKlCnHED  BY  Ml55GE^TfUDE-EVAl15- 
•O  -OFW- 


Plate  57 


[177] 

Rule  lOj.  All  surface  enrichment  should  hare  an  appearance  of  compactness 
or  unity.  Pierced  spots  or  areas  should  be  so  used  as  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
having  been  scattered  on  the  surface  without  thought  to  their  coherence. 

Rule  10k.  Built,  carved,  and  chased  enrichment  should  hare  the  higher  planes 
near  the  point  of  concentration.  It  is  irell  to  hare  the  stone  as  the  highest  point 
above  the  primary  mass.  When  u.s-ing  this  form  of  enrichment  the  stone  should 
never  appear  to  rise  abruptly  from  the  primary  mass,  but  should  be  approached  by  a 
series  of  rising  planes. 

Rule  101.  The  lanes  or  inargins  bctireen  enameled  spots  should  be  narrower 
than  the  lane  or  margin  between  the  enamel  and  the  contour  of  the  primary  mass. 

Rule  10m.  Transparent  and  opaque  stones  or  enamel  .should  not  be  tised  in  the 
same  design. 

Postulate.  —  The  design  should  conform  to  the  limitations  and  requirements 
of  tools,  processes,  and  materials,  and  should  be  durable  and  suitable  for  service. 


REVIEW    QT'ESTIOXS 

1.  What  is  often  used  as  a  point  of  concentration  in  the  surface  enrichment 

of  precious  metals.^      Why.^ 

2.  State  direction  of  the  inceptive  axis  for  prohlcms  similar  lo:   (a)  tie  pins, 

(6)    pendants,    (c)   fobs,    (d)   rings,    (p)    bar   pins.^      Why?      Under   what 
grouping  of  planes  may  they  be  placed.^ 

3.  State  the  relation  between  the  point  of  concentration  and  tlic  in(  cplive  axis. 

4.  Give  three  steps  in  the  design  evolution  of  surface  enrichment  for  small 

flat  planes. 

5.  Descrilie    briefly   eleven    decorative   processes   for   the   surface   rnricliiuent 

of  precious  metals  with  the  technical  rendering  of  each. 

6.  Illustrate  examples  of  dependent  contour  and  dependent  surface  enrich iiK'Nt 

of  precious  metals. 

7.  Where  should  a  stone  in  a  design  similar  to  a  pin  or  brooch  be  placed  with 

reference  to  the  inceptive  axis  and  the  geometric  center  of  tlu-  primary 
mass.' 

8.  Illustrate  manner  of  planning  primary  mass,  inceptive  axis,  point  of  con- 

centration,   contour,    and    surface    enrichment    of:    (a)    pins,    (6)    fobs, 
(c)  rings,  (d)  pendants  and  chains. 

9.  State  the  relation  of  stone  or  enamel  to  metal. 

10.  What  rule  should  govern  the  amount  of  metal  used  in  a  design? 

11.  State  the  objection  to  a  design  with  (ontour  and  surface  eiiriclini<  iit  equally 

elaborated. 

12.  Is  it  possible  to  vur\'  the  design  in(ili\i'  >>i  a  rliaiii  fidui  llial  nf  a  pendant.' 

Why  and  how? 
i;5.    (live  illustration  and  retiuirements  of  a  good  design  in  clianiplexc  enamel. 

14.  What   precautions   should   be   exercised   in   designing   pierced   <nri(  liment? 

15.  What  rules  should  be  observed  in  designing  a  built-u])  or  carved  design? 


3 


[178] 

SURFACE     EHRICMnEhT    Or  LARGE     PRiriAIST     IMASStS    in    ?1^^:CI0U5 
MtTAL5     •    TRtATnthT    Of  ?LAT    AhD    SEHI-fLAT    SURfACES  • 
wo'rk:   01=  sTuDcriTs    or  niLwAUKf-E:- DowneR   coLueoE- 


FlG-403-  fOi^Kl    AHD    STRAIHEE: 
ILLUSTEATiriG    APPtHDACiE   TE"RMINAL 

EneicnMEhT  •  PRoctss  ■  i  • 


nG-404-     NOTE    RELATIOn    OT 

inmAL  w"  TO  conTOUR.  •  b-  (&• 


flG  •405-  fULL    5UeT=ACE    EnElCHMCriT:      TIG  •406-    A     AHD    B    KEPEtSEHT   CEhTER. 
PC'    in    CEhTER.-     I-  ErtEICHnE-NT  •  I  •  7- 


Plate  58 


Chapter  XIV 

SURFACE    ENRICHMENT  OF  LARGE   PROIARY  MASSES 
IN   BASE   AND   PRECIOUS   :\IETALS 


The  surface  enrichment  of  small,  flat  primary  masses  treated  in 
Chapter  XIII  emphasized  the  designer's  tendency  for  fidl  surface 
enrichment  of  small  areas.  Such  treatment  has  proved  satisfactory 
because  the  eye  can  readily  and  immediately  observe  and  comprehend 
or  assimilate  an  enrichment  upon  a  small  area.  For  larger  enriched 
areas  considered  in  this  chapter,  full  surface  enrichment  becomes  a 
questionable  policy  for  the  following  reasons. 

It  is  true  that  the  old  time  craftsman  with  consummate  skill  fully 
enriched  large  surfaces,  but  two  factors  interfere  with  this  mode  of 
treatment  today.  The  first  factor  is  the  decidedly  practical  nature 
of  the  problem.  The  service  to  which  the  modern  industrial  project 
is  put  interferes  with  the  use  of  full  surface  (Mu-ichmeiit.  The  second 
is  the  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  modern  amateur  designer.  It  is 
a  sound  policy  to  avoid  the  ornateness  that  fre(iuently  accomi)anies  a 
large  and  unskillfully  ])lanned  area.  In  })lace  of  this,  we  should 
limit  the  enrichment  of  large  masses  to  a  few  salient  areas  which 
are  well  related  to  the  structural  lines. 

Rule  lib.  Conservative  applicafion  should  n/ar/,-  Ihc  use  of  surface 
enrichmeut  of  large  luasses-.  Its  use  should:  { 1  )  Injhlcu  or  soflcu  ucces- 
san'h/  lieary  conslrudiou:  ('•2)  support  or  appunullii  slroajthoi  tjood 
structure;  (3)  add  interest  to  large  unhroL'en  and  uuiuti  resting  surfaees. 

These  salient  areas  should  determine  I  lie  surface  eiiriclniuMit 
appr()])riate  to  the  structure,  so  thai  lli(>  (MiricliUKMil  :  (  1  )  w  ill  lighten 
or  soften  necessarily  heavy  cons!  ruci  ion  as  in  I-'igun^  M),3;  ('-2)  support 
or  a))j)areutly  sli-cugtiien  good  struclur(\  Figure  H. '5;  (,'})  add  iiilcrcst 
to  large  unbroken  or  otherwise  unintei-est  ing  surfae(\s  ;is  ilhisl  r.i  led 
in  I^'igure  K).>.  'i'o  aid  in  i)r()ducing  the  desired  i-esnlts,  we  li;i\-e  the 
technical  processes  mentioned  in  Chai)ter  XI 11  as  follows:  (1)  I'iereing; 

[17!)] 


Enrichment 
for  Small 
Areas 


Enrichment 
for  Large 
Areas 


Essentials 
of  Good 
Surface 
Enrichment 


[180] 


Figure  406a. 


INIainly  Objects  Designed  to  be  Seen  from  i\.bove 


(2)  Etching;  (3)  Chasing;  (4)  Enamehng;  (5)  Inlaying;  (G)  Stone- 
setting;  (7)  Building;  (8)  Carving;  (9)  Planishing;  (10)  Frosting; 
(11)  Oxidizing.  On  the  plates  for  this  chapter,  the  figure  generally 
following  the  cut  number  refers  to  the  process,  as:    Figure  446,  3. 

Surface  Design  Evolution 

Rule  11a.  The  preliminary  steps  toward  surface  enrichvient  should 
he  thought  out  before  they  are  drawn. 

A  designer  will  be  materially  helped  if  he  devotes  a  few  moments 
of  thought  to  his  design  problem  before  he  applies  the  pencil  to  the 
paper.  In  the  end  the  time  given  to  thinking  out  his  problem  will 
gain  for  him  both  increased  excellence  of  design  and  rapidity  of 
execution,  provided  his  thinking  is  systematic.  A  sequential  order 
of  points  to  be  observed  is  given  below.  The  object  of  systematic 
thought  is  to  form  a  mental  picture  of  the  enrichment  to  be  in  full 
accord  with  the  materials  and  construction  and  to  be  sympathetically 
related  to  the  structural  axes  and  to  the  contours.  The  unenriched 
mass  has  been  designed  and  we  are  now  ready  for  the  consideration  of 
surface  enrichment  in  the  following  order. 


[  181  ] 

(a)  Placing  the  Zone  of  Service. 

,        ^^n  •    ii  i>  •      0  Summary  of 

1.      Vvnere  is  the  zone  oi  servicer  ox 

Steps  m 

Surface 
(6)   Classification  of  Form.  Enrichment 

1.  Is  the  object  flat,  shallow  and  circular,  low  and  cylindrical, 
liisih  and  cylindrical? 

(c)  Placing  the  Zone  of  Enrichment . 

1 .  Is  the  enrichment  to  be  seen  from  above  or  from  the  side  ?  See 
Figure  406a. 

2.  What  point  of  the  structure  suggested  by  the  form  needs 
surface  enrichment?  Is  it  the  primary  mass,  appendages,  terminals, 
links,  or  details?     Let  the  area  selected  become  the  zone  of  enrichment. 

(f/)  Amount  of  Enrichment. 

1.  Will  the  enrichment  cover  the  full  surface,  i)art  surface  (^center 
or  margin),  or  accented  outline? 

(e)  Location  of  Inceptive  Axis. 

1.  Is  the  zone  of  enrichment  associated  willi  a  square,  rectangle, 
hexagon,  or  irregularly  shaped  flat  plane,  circular  or  cylindricjd 
surface?     Figure  470. 

2.  How  should  the  ince})tive  axis  be  placed  in  the  zone  of 
enrichment  to  harmonize  with  the  structural  forms  suggested  by 
1  (e)  and  the  point  from  which  it  is  viewed  1  (c)?  See  the  violation 
of  this  latter  point  in  Figure  439.  Presumably  this  inceptive  axis 
will  be  a  vertical  center  line,  horizontal  center  line,  diagonal,  diameter, 
radius,  the  element  of  a  cylinder,  or  a  dynamic  curve  for  a  free  bolder. 

(/)   Point  of  Concentration. 

1.     Where   should    the  point    of   concenlralion    l)e    located    upon     Surface 
the  inceptive  axis?  Enrichment 


ig)    Unison  of  Enrichmcnl  and  Materials. 

1.      What    decoralixc   |)rocess   will    be   a(l;i])Liltl('    to   service,   the 
malerial,  and  the  coiileniplaled  design? 


[182] 

SURFACE    EMRICHnEnT     Of    LAeCiE    PeiHATiT     HASSES     Ih  ,  BASE     nC-JALS 
•  TEEATMEHT     OF      FLAT      AhD      SEni-fLAT      SURFACES    • 


couexes-r      op     schoou     aets      MA,&A2.mE 

ri<a  •407-   I-4-  riG-408-F16-409- 


FIG '410  •4-' 


F1&-414 


FIG  •4-15 


riCT4l6- PEACOCIC  nOTlYC   APPLIED  •£• 


Plate  59 


Ciiiirli'sji  (if  P.  and  F.  Corbin 


[183] 

(//)   Type  of  Units. 

1.     What  design  units  are  suited  to  the  process  selected  in  {g),     Q^y,mma.rv  of 
appropriate  to  the  texture  and  structural  lines  of  the  form  to  be     steps  in 
enriched  and  to  its  ultimate  service?     Choice  may  be  made  from     Surface 
nature,  geometric  pattern,  or  historic  ornament. 

The  above  points  may  all  be  thought  out.  Now,  with  some  assur- 
ance, the  designer  may  take  his  pencil  and  begin  to  draw  the  units 
in  their  proper  position  upon  or  about  the  inceptive  axis  with  the 
point  of  concentration  correctly  placed  in  position  in  the  inceptive 
axis.  Rules  and  suggestions  for  this  execution  have  been  previously 
given. 


Enrichment 


(i)  Designing  of  the  Units. 

1.  How  should  the  units  be  drawn  to  be  in  harmony  with  the 
inceptive  axis,  the  contours,  and  to  each  other.^ 

The  above  points  of  approach  to  surface  enrichment  represent 
a  logical  reasoning  process  which  supplies  a  line  of  sequential  and 
developmental  pictures  that  will  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  element 
of  doubt  and  fog  through  which  tlie  average  designer  approaches 
his  problem.  The  steps  will,  in  time,  become  practically  automatic 
and  may  be  thought  out  in  a  surprisingly  short  period  of  time. 

Rule  lie.  The  type  of  design  uuit  for  large  masses  should  be  bolder 
than  similar  designs  for  small  primary  masses. 

As  may  be  expected  from  briefly  considering  the  illusl  rat  ions  for 
this   chapter   as    compared    with    those   for   small    primary    masses. 
Chapter  XIII,  it  is  seen  that  the  units  for  base  and  precious  metals     Masses  and 
are  larger  and  bolder  than  those  used  for  smaller  masses.     The  more     Their 
effective  designs   are   those   whose  ap])ropriateness,   sim])licity,   and     Treatment 
correct  structural   proportions  and   relations  appeal   lo  oui"  s(Mise  of 
fitness  and  beauly. 

Figures  403,  404,  and  MKI  are  compos(Ml  of  j)rojecls  d(\sigiiod 
mainly  on  V(M"tica1  incepli\'e  axes  or  ('(Milcr  lines,  '^riic  IVecly  balanced 
natural  ninis  in  P'ignre  40'>  lia\('  llu^  zone  of  (Mnicliincnl  in  I  lie  n|)per 
j)orlion  of  llic  a|>i)<'n(lag('  i  handles),  an<l  llic  poini  of  conccnl  I'al  ion 
in  the  upjxT  j)orlion  of  1  he  zone  of  enrich iikmiI  .  l-'oi'inal  synimet  rical 
balance  controls  lli(>  placing  of  cniichmcnl  in  I'iunrc  40  1-.  Initial 
letters,  through   lack  of  considci'at  ion   of  design   princij)l(>s,  ai-(^  ivc- 


Large 


[  184  ] 


SUEFACt     EneiCHnEhT     OF    LA^GE    Pi^lMAR-T     HASSES    Itl   BASE    ntTAL 
•   TK.EATM&nT     OF      FLAT     PLAhES     IM    CAST     BEONZie  • 


LACK  OF    eCLATIOm 
BfTWEEn    STKUCTUIJAU 
AXIS     AMD     OENAMCriT 


PIG  •4^3- 
ACCfMTCD  COMTOUe 


F|Ct4I8' 


F\Ct419-  EriRlCH^ 
ntriT  YIOLATIMu 
EOLf    OF  SeKYICE- 


Fl  6-42,4  • 
ACCfHTED  GOnTOUE 


( 


FIG-42L0- 


ivivmf!^ 


FlG-4^l-YIOLATI0h      FI6-4Z2-  APPEOP- 
OP   APPRDPRlATEneSS      1^1  ATE  OErtAMEMT 


pijp( 


FIG  •42.5- 
C-rEFflC 


P16  •426- 
BTzy^riTine 


ri&-4ZT- 


F1&-4Z8- 
GOTHIC 


,-tA 


m 


ri6-429- 
TEEnCH  RENA1S5AMCE 


:^ 


FICt430 

L0O15  ?^1Y 


1^1 


FlCv431- 

EMPlT^e 


f|Cn»43Z« 
FLtMlSH 


Plate  60 


Door  Plates,  Courtcfy  of  P.  and  F.  Corbin 


[185] 


qiiently  misplaced  on  masses  with  little  or  no  consideration  given 
to  their  mass  relations  with  the  structural  contours.  As  a  contrast 
to  this,  notice  the  carefully  considered  relations  between  the  letter 
W  on  the  tea  strainer  in  Figure  404  and  its  adaptation  to  the  con- 
tours of  the  appendage.  The  stone  enrichment  on  the  handle  of 
the  paper  cutter  in  Figure  404  in  no  way  interferes  with  its  use  as  a 
cutter  and  is  therefore  appropriate  as  surface  enrichment. 

The  pierced  enrichment  of  the  silver  box  in  Figure  405  contains 
vertical  and  horizontal  lines  which  bring  the  decorative  human 
figures  into  harmonious  relation  with  the  structural  contours.  Figure 
406  shows  both  formal  and  free  balance  with  center  and  full  surface 
zones  of  enrichment.  C  and  D  could  have  been  improved  by  a 
more  strongly  marked  point  of  concentration  which  would  have 
added  more  character  to  the  designs. 

In  Chapter  VIIT,  the  contour  terminal  enrichment  problem  was 
described  at  some  length.  Many  illustrations  on  Plates  58,  59,  and 
60  are,  in  a  way,  similar  in  their  type  of  surface  decoration,  wliich  is 
termed  surface  terminal  enrichment.  The  "ha])py  en(hng"  men- 
tioned in  Chapter  A  III  as  a  suitable  means  of  terminating  the  contour 
of  a  long  primary  mass  or  appendage  may  be  similarly  treated  by 
suitable  surface  enrichment,  particularly  shown  in  Figures  4(),'J,  404, 
407,  408,  409,  and  410.  The  terminal  is  (juile  conunon  as  a  zone 
of  enrichment. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  wIkmi  surface  enrichment  is  the  ])revailing 
decorative  theme  il  becomes  necessary  to  subordinate  contour 
enrichment  to  it,  liule  10b,  otherwise  llu^  strife  for  dominance 
arising  between  these  two  forms  of  enrichment  will  lead  (<>  poor  aud 
ornate  design.  Figure  417.  AXliatcNcr  contour  enrichment  is  used 
must  \)v  chosen  to  accoi'd  willi  llie  surface  eiiricliuieiil .  Kule  lOd.  as 
noted  in  the  })i-eceding  figures  and  in  I^'ignic  til.  Here  we  lind  the 
closest  connection,  as  the  chased  foi'nis  of  lli(>  surface  at  many  j)()inls 
merge  into  the  conloui'.  Thus  surface  and  conloin"  ai'c  bound  lo- 
gether  in  unil\-  willi  the  surface  enrichuieul,  wliich  uiaintaius  its 
dominance  I  liroughoul . 

The  siui])le  and  dignifie(I  Irealnieiil  of  Mie  (ire  >el  in  l-'i^ui-e  M.'> 
is  synonymous  v.illi  the  fine>l  type  of  em-iehmeni  foi-  ser\  ice  and 
beauty,    Iiule    Mb.      The    ])eacock    niolives   of    j'igni'cs    111-    and    41.") 


Large  Flat 
and  Semi- 
flat  Surfaces 
in  Precious 
Metal, 
Plate  58 


Flat  and 
Semi-flat 
Surfaces  in 
Base  Metal, 
Plate  59 


Contour 
I ' crsits 
Surface 
Enrichment 


[  186 


Surface 
Enrichment 
of  Hardware, 
Plate  60 


Historic 
Ornament 
Applied  to 
Period  Hard- 
ware Design 
Door  Plates 


are  applied  to  the  desk  set.     The  motives  as  used  in  this  case  are 
generally  well  adapted  to  their  respective  areas  and  inceptive  axes. 

Rule  llf.  Repulsive  forms  should  uot  he  introduced  into  surface 
enrichment. 

Figure  417  is  a  typical  example  of  over-ornamentation  with  the 
surface  and  contour  enrichment  struggling  in  deadly  conflict  for 
prominence.  In  the  combat,  the  natural  structural  axis  has  been 
totally  neglected  for  irrelevant  and  disconnected  ornament.  Figure 
418  illustrates  correctly  related  surface  ornament,  with  a  dominance 
of  the  latter  form.  Rule  10b.  Figure  419  represents  a  type  of  dec- 
oration presumably  roughened  to  meet  the  needs  of  service.  It 
proves,  however,  to  be  unpleasant  to  the  touch  and  unnecessary  as 
the  plain  knob  is  preferable  in  every  way.  The  naturalistic  snake 
motive  of  Figure  4'-21  is  repulsive  to  many  people;  this  and  similar 
decorative  motives  should  be  avoided  in  preference  to  the  more 
conventionalized  pattern  of  Figure  4'-22,  Rule  llf. 

Rule  lie.  Tico  periods  of  historic  ornament  should  not  be  introduced 
into  the  same  design. 

It  is  impossible  to  close  these  chapters  without  reference  to  the 
influence  of  the  great  schools  of  architectural  history  upon  contem- 
porary design.  There  is  a  growing  tendency  for  manufacturers  to 
use  period  patterns  in  house  decorations  which  correspond  to  the 
design  of  the  building.  A  Colonial  building  frequently  calls  for 
Colonial  hardware,  a  Gothic  church  for  corresponding  surface  enrich- 
ment of  that  period. 

As  introductory  illustrations.  Figure  4*23  stands  as  a  simple 
example  of  accented  (beveled)  contour  while  Figure  424  has  been 
accented  with  reminiscent  moulding  appropriate  to  Colonial  archi- 
tecture. They  might,  however,  be  used  with  many  simply  designed 
articles  of  furniture.  From  this  slight  indication  or  portion  of  a 
style,  we  have  a  more  pronounced  beginning  in  Figure  425  with  its 
clearly  marked  Greek  egg  and  dart  ornamental  border.  The  acan- 
thus leaf  of  the  Byzantine  school,  Figure  426,  changes  to  the  geometric 
arabesques  of  the  Moorish  school  in  Figure  427.  The  Gothic  arch, 
cusps,  and  quatrefoil  of  Figure  428  are  changed  to  the  classic  acanthus 
foliage  of  the  French  Renaissance  period.  Figure  429.  Figures 
430  and  431  are  later  developments  of  the  Renaissance.     The  heavily 


[187] 


enriched  Flemish  pattern  completes  our  illustrations  of  the  use  of 
past  forms  of  ornamentation  applied  to  modern  designs.  Only  a 
small  number  from  a  rapidly  enlarging  field  of  period  design  are 
shown. 

With  circular  plates  and  trays,  the  enrichment  normally  takes  the 
form  of  a  border  (marginal  enrichment),  with  the  inceptive  axes  or 
center  lines  of  the  repeated  units  radiating  from  the  center  of  the 
circle.  Figures  433,  435,  43(),  437,  438,  and  439.  An  elliptical 
form  frequently  calls  for  handles  and  terminal  enrichment  as  shown 
by  Figure  434. 

Both  Figures  437  and  438  have  divided  points  of  concentration 
and  would  be  materially  improved  by  the  omission  of  the  center  unit 
A.  The  small  tree  used  as  a  connecting  link  in  the  border  of  Figure 
437  should  be  reversed,  as  it  now  possesses  a  motion  or  growth  con- 
trary to  the  larger  tree  units.  The  contour  enrichment  in  Figure  438 
could  well  be  omitted  or  moved  around  to  support  the  surface  enrich- 
ment. The  pierced  enrichment  A,  Figure  430,  is  incorrectly  used 
as  it  is  not  designed  to  be  seen  from  above,  the  normal  \iewpoint 
of  the  tray.  The  design  should  have  l)een  based  upon  the  horizontal 
axis  of  the  project  similar  to  Figure  439  at  B. 

Differing  from  the  shallow  i)lnte,  with  the  increased  heiglit  of 
the  low  cylindrical  forms  of  Plate  ()^2,  there  now  develops  the  possi- 
bility of  enricliing  the  sides  of  this  class  of  i)roject :  a  zone  of  enrich- 
ment not  readily  accessil)le  in  the  shallow  })late  form.  In  addition  to 
the  sides  there  remain  the  ai)j)endages,  (|uite  capable  of  carrying 
enrichment  to  advantage.  One  should  control  the  zone  of  enricliment 
in  such  a  manner  that  tlie  attention  w  ih  not  be  cMiually  ch'aw  n  to  bot  h 
appendage  and  j)rimary  mass.  "^Fwo  j)oints  of  enrichnuMit .  both 
calling  for  e(|nal  attention.  (Hn  ide  the  interest  in  the  problem,  and 
cause  a  lack  of  unity  oi'  oneness. 

Rule  11(1.  The  cijc  shoJiUi  he  (iffrarfcd  to  one  princ/pdl  zone  of 
enriclnnviiL  ir/icfhcr  Inrafrd  upon  llic  prnimrii  iikiss,  a  ppcmhujc, 
frrminals,  liiil:.\\  or  dcUiils.  ^lll  ol/tcr  zonca  ^huuld  be  subordinate 
to  this  (ir((i. 

j^nriciiincnt  ni)on  the  a|)i)('n(Iag('s  may  be  found  in  kiguics  t K), 
441,  44'-2,  44.3,  and  on  the  n|)j)<M-  jxtitidn  of  the  sliaight  siih-s  of  the 
primary  mass  in  Figni'cs  44.'»  and    1  tt.      The  dccoi-al  i\(>  units  coni- 


Shallow 
Circular 
Forms, 
Plate  61 


Low 

Cylindrical 
Forms, 
Plate  62 


[188] 


suerACE  EheicHncnT  op  laegc   peimer   hasscs    in  base  ahd  pekious   metal  ■ 

•  TEEAinenT     OF     5ttALL0W     CieCULAE     FORHS  • 


Fl6  •'q33-  3 


FICt434-  PeOCE55  -l 


FICt435-5' 


hOTE    THE 
COMTKAET 

moTion 


BOTH    RCSlGnS     WOUL'D 
HAYfc   BEEM    iriPeOY 

r  oniTTiHG   'A' 


DisccMnecTeo 

COMTOUe  AMD 
SUEFACf    EMKICHMEMT 


FIG  •  435-  3-4-- 


FIG   •  437  '^^ 


FlC-t  •  438  •  3  • 


FIG   •439-    nAiriLT     SHftLLOW     ClECULAe      Foer-is 


Plate  61 


[189] 


SURFACE    EiieicHneriT    op    LAR.6e    PEtriAeT    nAsses    in  ba5& 

AMD     Precious     ntTAL    '   Te-EATMEhT    OF    LOV/     CIECULAI2.   T=0I2.nS 


I 


figt44<)- EhEicHriE-nT    or  APPENOAGe-e 


FIG  •4-41  •  e 


PIG  •44-^-  I  • 
erueiCHNC-riT    of    APPEhDACiE 


FIG    •  4-4-3  •  I  • 


FIG  •444- 3-        NAeGIMAL     EneiCHnEHT 


PIG  •  4-45  •  3 


1*1.  \Ti:  (;>^2 


190] 


suerACE   ErieiCMMcnT  of  laijgc  peiMAer  masses   in    basc    amd    peccious 

.      nCTAL5    •    TEEATnEhT    OF    HIGti     CYLiriDElCAL     FOEHS  • 


PICt44^-5-  F1&-441-7- 


FIG  ■448-    YCeTlCAL    CHA5FD      ChEICHnrriT  -a- 


FICt  •449-3- 


FIG  -4-50  •  hOTe   THE- 
FACT    THAT    THE     EHRICH 

nenT  om   base-    i5 

SUBOKDIMATED    TO    TliAT 
Of=^    The    5MADE  • 


ai 


FICt  •  4-51  •    nAIMLT     COriTOUlS. 

EneicHnEHT 


FIG   •452,-    ILLUSTEATiriG    THE  "ECHOIhG"   OF     A    MOTIVE" 
THe    5YnBOU"X"   SHOULT)   BE    IM   TttC    UPPEI?.    PORTlOri    OF   THE    P-H- 


FICt -453-  e 


Plate  63 


[191] 

posing  the  border  on  these  straight  sides  are  designed  upon  the 
vertical  element  of  the  underlying  cylindrical  form  as  the  inceptive 
axis.  The  enrichment  for  the  appendage  is  well  related  to  the 
contour  of  that  member  and  is  commonly  based  upon  the  center  line 
of  the  appendage. 

The  principles  of  enriching  these  higher  cylindrical  forms  in  many 
ways  closely  parallel  those  which  govern  the  lower  cylindrical  forms. 
The  inceptive  axes  of  the  decoration  on  the  two  vases  of  Figures 


High 


Cylindrical 
446  and  447  may  be  readily  analyzed  as  vertical  elements  of  the     Forms 

cylinder.  Figures  448  and  449  are  quite  rare  exceptions  of  the  accen-  Plate  63 
t nation  of  the  vertical  lines  of  the  cvlinder.  Horizontal  bands 
similar  to  Figures  444  and  447  are  more  connnon  interpretations  of 
cylinder  enrichment.  Figure  450  marks  a  successful  coml)iuation 
of  two  dissimilar  materials  with  the  shade  (appendage)  as  the  dom- 
inating enriched  member.     Rule  10c. 

The  small  chased  bosses  used  as  enrichment  in  Figure  4,5'-2  are 
re-echoed  on  the  several  pieces  of  the  set  which  binds  them  into 
collective  unity.  The  top  portion  of  the  i^rimary  mass  seems  to  need 
some  form  of  enrichment,  as  the  contour  adds  lit  lie  to  the  bcautv  of 
that  part.  The  symbol  X  could  have  been  better  located  l)y  l)eing 
moved  to  that  place.  The  point  of  concentration  should  be  })laced 
in  the  upper  portion  of  a  large  mass  whenever  Uial  arrangement 
is  possible. 

It  is  in  every  way  desirable  that  all  designs  shoultl  be  executed 
full  size  and  in  full  accord  with  the  re(iuirements  of  a  shoj)  working 
drawing.  In  addition  the  lechuical  rendering  suggested  in  Cluipter 
XIII  should  be  carefully  used  in  each  drawing. 

ixsTurcTinx  sukkt 

Plates  08  and  72  show  problems  suitable  for  class  presentation.      Tlio  nictluxl 
of  (lcvcl(ii)incnt  is  similar  In  lliat  i)rcs('iit<'(l  on  Plate  o2. 


SUMMAin"    OF    DKSIC.X    STEPS 

(a)    Draw  a  primary'  mass  \\illi  rdirc  ikc  to  it>  i)ropcr  f,'roiipini;  as  follows: 
For  flat  ari-as  draw  xpiarc,  rcclanj^ic,  clc. 
For  shallow  circular  forms  draw  a  circle. 

For  low  eylinrlrical  forms  draw  a  rectangle  witii  liori/oulai  jnoporlions. 
F(rr   lii^li   cylindrical   forms  draw  a   rectangle   with    vertical   projxirl  ions. 


(b)  Locate  zone  of  service. 

(c)  Locate    zone    of    enrichment:    api)cn(lages,    terminals,    margins,    full    sur- 

face, etc. 

(d)  Determine  amount  of  enrichment. 

(e)  Locate  inceptive  axes. 

(/)  Place  point  of  concentration  in  the  inceptive  a.xis  where  it  traverses  the 
zone  of  enrichment. 

(g)  Select  the  decorative  process  suited  to  the  material  and  contemplated 
motive. 

(/()    Draw  leading  lines  toward  the  point  of  concentration. 

(/)  Draw  conventionalized  design  motives  based  upon  the  leading  lines,  con- 
verging towaril  the  point  of  concentration.  Vary  the  contours  to  be 
sympathetically  related  to  these  design  motives,  provided  such  variation 
of  the  original  primary  mass  is  necessary  to  complete  unity. 

(j)  Add  additional  views,  dimension,  and  otherwise  prepare  the  drawing  for 
shop  use. 


SUGGESTED    PROBLEM 

Design  a  copper  nut  howl  and  spoon.  Enrich  with  a  chased  border  appro- 
priate to  the  subject.  Enrich  spoon,  using  fitting  method  of  enrichment. 
The  bowl  and  spoon  should  have  a  harmonious  relation. 


SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Surface  Exrichmext  of  Large  Primary  Masses 

Rule  11a.  The  preliminary  steps  touard  surface  enrichment  should  be 
thought  out  before  they  are  draien. 

Rule  lib.  Conservative  application  should  mark  the  use  of  surface  enrichment 
of  large  masses.  Its  use  should:  (1)  lighten  or  soften  necessarily  heavy  construction; 
{^)  support  or  apparently  strengthen  good  structure;  (J)  add  iuferest  to  large 
unbroken  and  uuiutcresting  surfaces. 

Rule  lie.  The  type  of  design  unit  for  large  masses  should  be  bolder  than 
similar  designs  for  small  primary  tuasses. 

Rule  lid.  The  eye  should  be  attracted  to  one  principal  zone  of  enrichment, 
whether  located  upon  the  primary  mass,  appendage,  terminal,  links,  or  details. 
All  other  zones  should  be  subordinate  to  this  area. 

Rule  lie.  Two  periods  of  historic  ornament  should  not  be  introduced  into  the 
same  design. 

Rule  llf.     Repulsive  forms  should  not  be  introduced  into  surface  enrichment. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Contrast  the  method  of  enriching  large  and  small  areas  of  base  and  precious 

metals.     Illustrate.      What  is  the  character  of  surface  enrichment  for 
large  areas? 

2.  Name  three  es.sentials  to  good  surface  design  for  base  and  precious  metals. 

Illustrate  each. 


[193] 

3.  Give  nine  steps  necessary  for  tlie  eoniplete  evolution  of  surface  enricliincnt. 

4.  Name  metliod  of  classifying  the  structural  forms  of  metal  into  four  groups. 

How  does  this  compare  with  the  classification  of  clay  forms? 

5.  Between  which  two  groups  does  the  transition  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical 

primary  mass  occur? 

6.  Is  there  a  perceptible  change  in   the  surface  enrichment  paralleling  this 

change  in  proportions  (jf  the  primary  mass? 

7.  In   which   group   or   groups   is   the   relation   between   surface   and   contour 

enrichment  closest? 

8.  Give  the  characteristics  of  surface  enrichment  designed  for  Hat  or  semi-flat 

planes. 

9.  State  the  value  of  the  terminal  as  an  enrichment  zone. 

10.  Discuss  common  errors  in  the  surface  enrichment  of  hardware  and   tiicir 

correction. 

11.  In  wliat  manner  does  historic  ornament  influence  industrial  design?      AVhy? 
\i.   Give  characteristics  of  surface  enrichment  designed  for,  («)  large,  shallow 

circular  forms;  (6)  large,  low  cylindrical  forms;  (c)  large,  high  cylindrical 
forms. 
13.  How  does  the  point  from  which  the  article  is  to  be  seen  affect  the  character 
of  the  design? 


Chapter  XV 


COLOR:     HUE,   VALUE,   AND   CHROMA;    STAINS 


Need  of 

Harmonious 

Color 


Use  of  Color 
Systems 


Color  Pig- 
ments for 
Design 
Rendering 


Application 

of 

Pigment 


In  the  previous  chapters  we  have  developed  problems  dealing 
with  proportions,  contours,  and  surface  enrichment.  The  use  of 
color,  particularly  in  surface  enrichment,  is  equally  important 
inasmuch  as  its  use  is  often  necessary  to  bring  the  project,  as  for 
example  a  piece  of  furniture,  into  harmony  with  the  surroundings 
which  furnish  its  final  color  environment.  The  incorrect  use  of  color 
may  seriously  mar  a  project  otherwise  correctly  designed  in  line  and 
form,  and  may  also  weaken  its  influence  in  a  particular  setting. 

While  there  are  a  number  of  excellent  svstems  of  color  notation, 
it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  color  system,  however  excellent,  is  a 
good  servant  but  a  poor  master.  It  is  nevertheless  considered  as 
essential  to  have  a  definite  knowledge  of  some  systematically  devel- 
oped color  system  in  order  that  we  may  methodically  apply  color 
to  the  structural  form  with  some  degree  of  certainty. 

For  rendering  drawings  of  problems  involving  the  use  of  color 
it  is  suggested  that  the  beginner  use  the  tempera,  or  opaque  colors 
now^  on  the  market.  These  colors  readily  adapt  themselves  to  the 
average  prol)lem,  while  their  rich  hues  are  more  successful  than  those 
produced  from  the  ordinary  water  colors.  Tubes  of  cobalt  blue, 
ultramarine,  light  chrome  yellow,  vermilion,  emerald  green,  crimson 
madder,  black,  and  white  will  serve  to  solve  the  problems  demanded 
by  this  chapter. 

White  is  used  to  lighten  and  black  to  darken  the  pigments,  which 
should  be  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  applied 
to  cover  well  the  surface  of  the  paper.  One  should  guard  against 
a  thin,  transparent  wash,  as  the  desired  ett'ect  is  a  velvety  oi)aque 
and  evenly  tinted  surface  only  possible  with  the  thick  application 
of  color.  The  pigment  will  dry  out  about  one-quarter  lighter  than 
when  first  applied.  The  usual  school  color  box  of  three  pigments  is 
useful  for  rendering  wood  stains.     These  pigments  may  be  used  in 


11)4 


[195] 


thin  flat  washes  and  will  exhil)it  a  transparent  effect  analogous  to  the 
effect  of  a  wood  stain.  The  natural  color  of  wood  may  be  first 
represented  and,  when  dry,  followed  by  a  second  thin  wash  of  the 
hue  of  the  wood  stain. 

Lacking  as  we  are  in  a  definite  color  nomenclature  or  standards, 
it  now  becomes  necessary  to  describe  the  processes  and  define  the 
terms  necessary  to  the  designer. 

Hue  is  the  technical  name  for  color;  a  change  of  color  means  a 
change  of  hue.  For  the  designer's  purposes  we  will  select  twelve 
equally  graded  colors  or  hues  from  the  spectrum  and  term  them 
standard  hues.  Each  hue  will  have  twenty-seven  modifications  or 
gradations,  vrliich  is  a  sufficient  numl)er  for  our  jiurpose.  These 
gradations  are  to  be  graphically  recorded  l)y  and  contained  in  a 
diagram  to  be  known  as  a  hue  rectangle.  There  are  twelve  of  these 
rectangles,  one  for  each  of  the  selected  hues,  aiul  they  are  fouud 
arranged  in  sequence  in  Figure  454. 

B}^  referring  to  Figure  455,  it  is  seen  that  the  twelve  selected 
standard  hues  are  represented  at  what  is  termed  full  chromaiic 
intensity,  which,  to  the  designer,  means  hues  of  the  full  strength  of  his 
color  pigment.  This  is  far  short  of  the  true  color  intensity  of  the 
spectrum,  but  for  industrial  arts  purposes  these  hues  are  strong 
enough  to  serve  as  standards  for  comparison  and  classification. 
The  hues  should  be  evenly  graded  from  red  at  the  left  to  red  violet 
at  the  right  without  noticeable  unevenness  in  the  gradations.  Red 
violet  is  the  link  which  connects  the  right  end  with  tlie  l(>ft,  tlius 
completing  the  circuit  of  the  twelve^  hues.  The  following  j)ignient 
table  gives  name  and  symbol  of  various  hues. 


HUES 

pigmp:xts 

V  A  LIES 

SYMBOLS 

Red 

Orange  red 

Orange 

Orange  yellow 

Yellow 

Pure  crimson  madder 

High  dark 

Middle 

Low  light 

Light 

High  light 

Light 

Low  light 

IJ-HI) 

Crim.son  madder  and  vermilion 

N'ermilion  and  light  ilirome  yellow.  .  .  . 
Verinilioii  and  light  chrome  yellow.  .  .  . 
Pure  light  chrome  vellow 

OR-M 
O-l.L 
OV-L 
V-IIL 

Yellow  green 

Green 

CrPeen  l)liie 

Light  chrome  yellow  and  emerald  green 

Y(;-L 
(.-LL 

Emerahl  green  and  cohnlt  l)lMe 

Pure  cohalt   l>luc                                   

ritramarine  anil  iriiriNoii   iiiaijijcr 

lit  ra  ma  riiir  and  i-n  iiisoii   niaildcr 

ritramarine  and  crimson  madder 

>ri.i.ii<'  

CBM 

Blue 

Blue  violet 

\i,,|ct             

High  dark 

Dark 

Low    dark 

H-lil) 
lU-D 
V-LI) 

Red  violet 

Dark 

RV-D 

Rendering  of 
Wood  Stains 


Hue  and 
Hue 

Rectangles 


Standard 
Hues 


Full 

Chromatic 

Intensity 


Approximate 
Related 
Standard 
Hues 


[  196 


Locating 

Standard 

Hues 


Values  and 
Horizontal 
Value  Lines 


Relation  of 
the  Standard 
Hue  to  the 
Hue  Rec- 
tangle 


Tints 


It  now  becomes  imperative  to  locate  each  standard  hue  at  its 
definite  phice  in  each  rectangle.  This  invariably  occurs  at  a  pre- 
determined point  in  the  left  vertical  boundary  of  the  rectangle  of 
that  hue.  From  inspection  of  Figure  4.5o,  it  is  quickly  seen  that 
violet  seems  to  be  the  darkest  hue;  yellow  the  lightest,  with  the 
others  between  these  hues.  This  variation  of  what  is  termed  their 
value  gives  us  a  guide  to  their  proper  placing  in  the  hue  rectangle. 

Value  is  that  quality  by  which  we  nia}^  distinguish  a  dark  hue 
from  a  light  one.  For  design  purposes  w^e  will  imagine  the  hue 
rectangle  to  grade  from  white  at  the  top  to  black  at  the  bottom. 
We  will  draw  horizontal  lines  or  steps  across  the  rectangle,  marking 
nine  even  value  steps  from  white  to  black;  the  top  one  to  be  termed 
White  (W),  followed  by  High  Light  (IIL);  Light  (L);  Low  Light 
(LL) ;  Middle  (M) ;  High  Dark  (HD) ;  Dark  (D)^;  Low  Dark  (LD) ; 
and  Black  (B).  These  value  steps  may  be  thought  of  as  a  scale  of 
gray  or  neutral  values  descending  the  right  boundary  of  the  hue  rect- 
angle. They  have  been  roughly  indicated  in  the  hue  rectangle  at 
the  left  of  Figure  4.54. 

Each  standard  hue  may  now  be  located  in  the  left  boundary 
of  its  hue  rectangle  and  opposite  its  neutral  gray  equivalent  in  the 
right  boundary.  If  the  standard  hue  is  accurately  determined  by 
the  designer,  it  will  be  of  exactly  the  same  value  as  its  gray  equivalent 
given  in  the  "value"  column  of  the  pigment  table.  The  small  arrows 
leading  from  Figure  455  to  454  show  where  four  standard  hues  are 
located;  the  remaining  hues  are  located  in  the  left  circle  of  each  suc- 
cessive row  in  the  remaining  rectangles,  and  upon  their  respective 
value  lines.  Standard  hues  are  expressed  by  the  symbols  in  the 
right  column  of  the  pigment  table. 

Each  standard  pigment  or  hue  may  be  thinned  with  opaque 
white  to  lighten  it,  forming  what  is  known  as  a  tint  of  that  hue. 
Red,  in  Figure  454,  reaching  its  full  chromatic  intensity  at  the  value 
High  Dark,  may  be  lightened  four  times  before  it  ultimately  arrives 
at  white.  Each  step  is  to  be  considered  as  occurring  in  the  left  hand 
boundary  of  the  rectangle  above  the  standard  hue,  and  is  to  be 
recorded  by  the  symbols,  R-M:  R-LL  :  R-L  :  R-HL.  Orange  yellow 
has  only  one  possible  tint.  Strawberry,  light  lavender,  rose,  etc., 
are  merely  nicknames  for  various  tints. 


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[197] 


Each    standard    hue    may   be   darkened    by    the   appHcation    of 
black,  thus  forming  shades  of  that  hue.     Red  is  capable  of  producing     Shades 
two  shades,  R-D  and  R-LD,  which  are  placed  in  the  left  boundary 
of  the  hue  rectangle  below  the  standard  hue.     Browns,  russets,  and 
dark  tans  are  shades  of  different  hues. 

These  modifications  of  the  standard  hues  into  tints  and  shades 
give  to  the  designer  sim])le  variations  of  his  too  brilliant  standards. 
But  even  these  modifications  are  not  sufficiently  grayed  for  staining 
or  painting  large  wood  or  wall  surfaces.  There  is  a  ])rilliancy  and 
glare  about  certain  tints  which  require  modification.  The  shades 
are  safer  for  use  on  large  areas.  The  remaining  space  in  the  interior 
of  the  hue  rectangle  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  last  gradation  of  the 
standard  hue. 

Chroma  is  the  strength  of  a  color.     It  is  the  quality  l)y  which  we 
distinguish  a  strong  color  from  a  weak  one.     The  standard  hue  is     Chroma 
approximately   full   chromatic    intensity.     Likewise   each    tint    and 
shade  is  considered  to  be  of  its  full  chromatic  intensity,  making  the 
left-hand  boundary  of  the  rectangle  the  area  of  full  chroma. 

From  this  boundary,  each  tint,  standard,  and  shade /(/(/r.v  o///  or 
loscfi  chroma  until  the  right  boundary  of  the  rectangh^  is  reached.  In 
this  boundary  each  tint,  standard,  and  shade  has  faded  out  of  its  gray 
equivalent,  but  without  changing  its  original  value;  in  other  words  it 
has  traveled  along  its  horizontal  valu(^  line  to  a  complete  grayness. 
The  right-hand  boundary  of  the  rectangle  may  then  be  represented 
by   a   gray   value  scale   of   nine    steps,    including   white    and  black. 

It  becom(\s  necessary  to  record  at  r(\gular  intervals,  this  hxss  of 
chroma.      For  this  purpose,  we  have  cut  tli(>  hue  r(>clangle  by  three     Vertical 
vertical  lines.     The  first  vcM'tical  lin(^  from  I  lie  left  boundary  of  the     Chroma 
rectangle  marks  the  position  where  (lie  stniulard  with  its  lints  and     Lines 
shades  have  Ixhmi  grayed  to  the  j)oiiit    where  only   I  hi-ce-l'ouiihs  of 
the  original  of  hue  remains.      Similarly,  the  center  and  right  \-ertical 
lines  mark   the  points   where  one-half  and   one-fourth,   resjx'ct  i\-ely, 
of  the  color  ha\-e  l)e<'n  retained.      These  losses  of  chroma  ai'e  recorded 
bv   similar    fractions.       With    possible    modifications    of    value    and 
chroma  each  hue  now  has  t  w  (Mity-se\-en  possible  changes. 

The  full  hue  title  oi"  syiubol  may  now  be  written  as  follows: 
(1)    hue   name,    ('-2)    auiouut    of  eln'oui;i.    i  .'5 )    \;ilue.      l'-\amj)les:    i\W 


[  198 


Full  Hue 
Symbols 


Fechnical 
Practice 


^arm  and 
3old  Colors 


scales  of 
Holor 


^ood  Stains 


Basic 

Primary 

lues 


|D-V|HL.  We  are  now  In  a  position  to  write  whatever  color  we 
may  have  in  mind  and  another  person  will  understand  it,  provided 
the  other  person  adopts  our  standard.  Through  the  teachings  of 
Dr.  D.  W.  Ross,  Mr.  A.  H.  Munsell,  and  others,  the  symbols  and 
standards  are  now  quite  generally  understood  and  have,  in  a  slightly 
modified  form  been  accepted  in  several  standard  color  industries. 

To  familiarize  oneself  with  the  mixing  of  the  various  hues, 
it  is  excellent  practice  to  form  a  vertical  gray  scale  of  the  three- 
quarter-inch  squares.  There  should  be  nine  steps  from  white  to 
black;  an  enlarged  duplication  of  the  right  boundary  of  the  hue 
rectangle.  The  warm  standard  hues  at  their  full  standard  inten- 
sities; R^'-R-OR-0-OY-Y,  may  be  formed  and  placed  opposite 
their  gray  equivalents  on  the  left  side  of  the  gray  scale,  while  the 
remaining  or  cold  colors  may  be  similarly  placed  with  relation  to  the 
gray  scale  but  upon  the  right  of  it. 

A  vertical  scale  of  tints  and  shades  of  one  of  the  hues,  duplicating 
the  left  side  of  the  rectangle  gives  the  character  of  the  tints  and  shades. 
One  shade  and  one  tint  should  then  be  carried  along  a  horizontal 
value  line  through  three  steps  of  loss  of  chroma  to  complete  grayness, 
but  without  change  of  the  original  value.  Yellow,  by  the  addition 
of  black  becomes  a  false  greenish  shade  which  may  be  corrected  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  vermilion. 

A  large  percentage  of  natural  wood  hues  are  to  be  found  between 
the  hue  rectangles,  Red-Orange,  Yellow  and  Green,  or  in  the  warm 
portion  of  the  spectrum.  As  a  wood  stain  must  blend  harmoniousl}^ 
with  the  natural  wood  color,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  the  best  results 
from  stains  with  a  predominance  of  warm  hues  or  warm  grays  in 
their  composition. 

It  is  possible  to  duplicate  nearhj  all  the  twelve  standard  hues  of 
Figure  455  with  mixtures  of  the  three  so-called  primary  hues  of  red, 
yellow,  and  blue.  It  makes  a  fairly  approximate  scale  which  is, 
however,  not  sufficiently  accurate  for  standardizing  purposes. 
The  scale  is  formed  by  mixing  red  and  yellow  in  varying  proportions 
for  the  intermediate  hues  of  orange,  yellow,  and  blue  for  the  greens, 
and  blue  and  red  for  the  violets.  This  practice  of  mixing  three  pri- 
mary colors  together  serves  as  an  important  step,  governing  wood 
stain  mixing  for  beginners. 


[199] 


Developing  this  idea  further,  we  may  select  aniline  brilliant 
scarlet  as  approximating  red;  metanil  yellow,  approximating  yellow; 
and  acid  green  as  a  substitute  for  blue.  These  stains  are  shown  in 
the  top  portion  of  Figure  45G.  By  comparison  with  Figure  455, 
scarlet  is  found  to  be  orange  red;  metanil  yellow,  orange,  and  acid 
green  to  be  true  standard  green.  These  basic  stains  have  been 
located  in  their  proper  positions  with  regard  to  their  hue,  value,  and 
chroma.  Their  positions  are  located  by  the  large  circles  in  the  hue 
diagrams  of  Figure  450. 

These  stains  are  modified  and  reduced  in  chroma  and  value  by 
mixing  them  with  iiigrosene  l)lack,  an  aniline  dye  of  l)lue  black 
appearance,  which  fills  all  the  needs  of  an  ivory  ])lack  in  water  or  oil 
color  pigment.  With  these  four  stains,  almost  any  commercial  stain 
may  be  duplicated.  Aniline  dye  for  water  stains  readily  dissolves 
in  water  while  a  special  aniline  for  oil  staining  is  first  cut  with  nai)hlha. 

Dark  mahogany  stain  in  Figure  456  is  orange  red,  fHD,  and  is 
indicated  by  the  circle  .1  in  the  same  figure.  To  duplicate  this  stain 
we  have  as  the  nearest  base  stain,  brilliant  scarlet,  which  corresponds 
to  orange  red.  This  is  placed  at  its  full  inhMisity  in  tlie  circle  OR 
on  the  middle  horizontal  value  line.  To  dui)hcale  dark  mahogany 
stain  it  will  be  necessary  to  reduce  in  value  a  strong  solution  of 
brilliant  scarlet,  slightly  more  than  one  horizontal  valu(^  step,  by  the 
addition  of  nigrosene.  We  shall  then  add  a  small  amount  of  some 
thinning  medium,  oil  or  water,  to  reduce  slightly  the  slain  in  cliroma. 

Flemish  oak  stain  is  orange  fD.  This  calls  for  a  mixlun^  of 
metanil  vellow  and  brilliant  scarlet  aniline  to  form  llic  orange  line. 
We  must  th(Mi  add  nigrosene  to  reduce  the  valu(>  to  1),  and  add  a  small 
amount  of  lliiinier  to  produce  th(^  necessary  i-educlion  in  clii-oma. 

This  is  commonly  j)rodu('ed  by  fuming  the  wood  willi  ammonia. 
The  hue  mav  however  be  closcK-  diinlicalcd  1)\-  a  mixhirc  of  brilliani 
scarlet,  melam'l  yellow,  and  nigrosene.  !l  is  prjici  ically  lli(>  same 
as  Flemish  oak,  bill  i)ossesses  one-(|iiarl('i-  more  coloi-  as  can  be  s(>en 
on  lh(^  orange  hue  rectangle. 

The  circle  I)  shows  I  his  slain  lo  be  sliglill\-  below  yellow  green, 
fiVI,  ill  x'ahie  and  chroma.  'I'lie  liiK'  reclaiigle  con!  ;i  iniiiu  il  is  iiearei- 
the  green  Ihaii  the  orange  yelh.w  rechnigh-  hence  in  mixing  llie 
stain   we  should  keet)  (he  urceii   hue  (loniinanl    by  ;i(l(liim  inor(>  of  il 


Three 
Basic 

Aniline  Wood 
Dyes 


Wood  Stain 
Mixing 


Dark 

Maliogany 

Stain 


Flemish 
Oak  Stain 


Fumed 
Oak  Stain 


Olive  Green 
Stain 


[200 


Light 

Weathered 
Oak  Stain 


Color 

Changes  of 
the  Stain 


than  of  nietanil  yellow.  As  in  other  stains,  nigrosene  is  added  to 
reduce  the  full  ehroniatic  intensities  of  the  aniline  to  the  proper 
value  and  chroma  of  olive  "reen  stain. 

This  stain  is  practically  blue,  ^M,  and  is  formed  by  thinning 
nigrosene  to  the  proper  value. 

Aniline  dyes  are  apt  to  fade  if  exposed  to  full  sunlight.  There 
are,  however,  certain  preventives  that  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
book  to  treat  in  detail.  The  natural  color  of  the  wood  is  inclined 
to  make  a  stain  warmer  than  when  originallv  mixed.  This  should 
be  allowed  for.  Wood  filler,  the  wood  grain,  porosity,  cjualities,  and 
hue  of  tlie  wood,  all  influence  the  final  value  of  the  stain.  It  fre- 
quently becomes  darker  in  value  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Fig- 
ure 456  and  Figures  4,58  to  4(51.  It  is  good  policy  to  test  the  stain 
upon  different  woods  to  observe  the  final  effect.  The  tests  may  be 
kept  for  future  reference. 

It  is  readily  seen  from  the  few  examples  in  Figure  456  that,  with 
the  three  basic  stains,  almost  any  other  stains  may  be  produced, 
thus  affording  a  broad  field  for  harmonious  selection  and  adaptation 
to  the  environment.  The  next  chapters  will  take  up  the  question  of 
color  harmony  and  its  application  to  wood,  wall  surfaces,  clay,  and 
metal. 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

See  paragraph  upon  "Technical  Practice"  in  this  chapter,  page  198. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 


1 


What 
How 


What  pigments  are   best  adapted   to   rendering   design   problems? 
pigments  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  rendering  of  wood  stains? 
should  each  be  api)lied? 

2.  What  are  standard  hues?     Why  do  we  need  standards  of  hue? 

3.  Define  the  term  values. 

4.  What  are  tints  and  shades? 

5.  Define  fully  the  term  chroma. 

C.    Bound  the  hue  rectangle  and  trace  the  value  and  chroma  changes  occurring 
on  its  vertical  and  horizontal  lines. 

7.  Locate  in  its  proper  hue  rectangle   (Eigure  ^55)  the   following    hues:    OY 

|HD;  YG  ILL;  RV  f  M;  YL. 

8.  Name  the  three  primary  hues.     How  may  an  approximate  scale  of  twelve 

hues  be  prepared  from  them? 

9.  Name  the  three  basic  aniline  wood  dyes  and  give  their  relation  to  the  three 

primary  hues.      What  is  the  practical  use  of  nigrosene  in  stain  mixing? 

10.  Give  the  symbol  and  explain  the  method  of  mixing  Flemish  oak  wood  stain. 

Name  and  explain  the  method  of  mixing  two  others. 

11.  How  does  its  ai>plication  to  wood  effect  the  color  and  value  of  aniline  stain? 


Chapter  XVI 


COLOR  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DESIGN 

Large  Surfaces  of  Wood;  Wall  and  Ceiling  Areas 


In  the  preceding  chapter,  the  classification  and  standardization 
of  color  were  emphasized  as  preliminary  to  the  study  of  color  harmony. 
Color  harmony  is  obtained  by  the  proper  balancing  of  value,  hue,  and 
chroma  upon  a  surface  or  surfaces  to  give  a  pleasing  reaction  to  the 
eve,  and  through  the  eve  to  the  intellect. 

We  are  now  ready  to  familiarize  ourselves  with  the  specific  appli- 
cations of  these  factors  to  practical  design  prol^lems.  Too  many 
pieces  of  furniture  are  stained  with  no  thought  as  to  the  final  adap- 
tation in  the  school  or  home.  This  is  not  wise,  either  from  the  stand- 
point of  a  complete  educative  process  or  of  good  taste.  Figures 
458,  459,  4G0,  461,  show  stains  of  Plate  ()4  applied  to  wood.  Two 
new  stains  have  been  added,  sage  green  and  silver  gray.  These  six 
stains  are  representative  ones  and  act  as  a  tyi)ical  tlata  for  study 
of  color  harmonv. 


Color 
Harmony 


Furniture — Trim — Side  Walus — ^Ceili\(js 


The  side  walls  of  a  room  form  llic  iKickgrouiid  foi'  I'lii'iiilui-e; 
trim,  wall  brackets,  and  similarly  relaled  objects;  I  lici-ctoic  the 
closest  relation   and  hannoiuj  should   be   maintained    between    I  hem. 

The  wood  stains  3,  (5,  !),  T^,  b5,  and  IS,  Plate  ()5,  as  tli(>y  aj)i)ear 
on  various  kinds  of  wood  are,  in  pari,  dnj)lieates  of  I  lie  unappli(Ml 
stains  of  Plate  04,  Figure  450.  'J'iie  elb-el  ol'  the  wood  lias  changed 
their  values  and  in  some  instanc(^s  Iheir  color  as  can  be  s(>en  by  eoni- 
})aring  the  two  ])lales.  Their  itcir  rrlalions  ha\-e  b(>(Mi  i)i(»tte(l  on  tlu^ 
hue  rectangles  of  P'igure  457.  Plate  (>5,  and  the  results  joined  by  a 
dotted  line.  '^Fhe  cii'cles  in  the  diagrams  contain  ci-oss  refeicnee 
figures   in   order    that    the   stains    may    1h>    ti-aeed    withoni    dillienlty. 

I  401  1 


Backgrounds 


Value  Range 
of  Wood 
Stains 


[  W2  ] 


Value  Range 
of  Side  Walls 


Value  Range 
of  Ceilings 


Value  Range 
of  Side  Walls 
and  Wood 
Work 


The  highest  vakie  is  near  middle  (18),  and  the  lowest  is  low  dark  (6), 
showing  a  value  range  of  four  steps. 

The  side  walls,  taken  from  well-known  wall  tint  catalogs  have 
been  similarly  plotted  in  Figure  457,  and  the  results  joined  together 
by  a  heavy  black  line.  The  lightest  value  is  light  (11),  and  the  dark- 
est is  middle  value  (14),  an  average  range  of  three  steps  slightly 
above  middle  value. 

Ceilings  are  the  lightest  of  the  surfaces  considered.  Their 
range  is  from  slightly  l)elow  white  (10),  to  light  (16),  a  range  of  two 
values.  From  the  results,  as  plotted  in  Figure  457,  it  is  seen  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  keep  the  ceilings  within  a  close  range  of  values. 
The  results  have  been  joined  together  b}'  means  of  a  double  black 
line.  There  are  exceptions  to  these  results,  but  it  is  quite  safe  to 
keep  well  within  the  suggested  range  for  harmonious  results.  We 
may  now  draw  the  following  rules  as  a  result  of  an  empirical  method 
of  deduction. 

Rule  l^a.  An  average  ivood  stain  is  to  be  retained  between  the 
values  middle  and  low  dark. 

Rule  12b.  An  average  wall  hue  is  to  be  retained  between  the  values 
light  and  middle. 

Rule  12c.  An  average  ceiling  hue  is  to  be  retained  between  the 
values  white  (minus)  and  light. 

Averaging  the  value  range  between  the  wood  work  which  includes 
the  furniture,  trim,  and  the  side  walls  of  Figures  458,  459,  460,  461, 
462,  and  463,  we  find  that  the  range  varies  from  five  values  in  Figures 
459  to  slightly  more  than  one  in  Figure  463.  As  the  side  w^alls  and 
furniture  are  to  be  regarded  as  unobtrusive  settings  for  pictures  and 
people  it  is  well  to  be  very  conservative  with  the  use  of  values.  A 
wide  range  of  values  will  cause  a  lack  of  unity.  In  this  respect 
Figure  459  may  be  regarded  as  approaching  the  extreme  limit  of 
contrasts  of  value  compatible  with  good  taste.  Let  us,  therefore, 
limit  the  value  range  to  four  values,  as,  for  example:  low  light  for 
side  walls  and  dark  for  stain. 

Rule  12d.  The  relation  between  the  side  walls  and  furniture, 
trim,  etc.,  shoidd  be  retained  within  the  range  of  four  values  or  less,  as 
low  light  and  dark. 


[  ^203  ] 


The  ceiling  and  side  walls  in  Figure  459  are  four  values  apart 


Value  Range 


and  in  Figure  463  this  has  been  reduced  to  a  one-value  step.     There     ^^  gj^g 
seems  to  be  a  common  average  of  three  values  as  an  acceptable  and     Walls  and 
agreeable  contrast.     For  dark  rooms  this  would  well  be  increased.     Ceilings 
For  rooms  with  light  side  walls  the  contrast  would  be  considerably 
lessened. 

Rule  l'-2e.      The  relation   between  side  icalls  and  eeiling  sJionld  be 
within  the  range  of  three  values  or  less,  as  high  light  and  low  light. 


Hue  Groupings 


A  wood  stain  should  be  closely  related  to  the  natural  color  of  the 
wood.  As  this  is  usuallv  a  warm  color  we  naturallv  find  most  of  the 
wood  stains  included  between  the  red  and  the  vellow  hue  rectangles, 
inclusive  of  red  and  vellow  green.  Walnut  then  mav  be  stained  a 
deep  shade  of  orange  or  red,  but  would  not  be  adapted  to  a  })lue  green 
stain.  This  arbitrary  but  wide  range  of  hues  of  stained  wood  nat- 
urally affects  the  hue  of  the  side  walls.  Tlie  plotting  of  the  hues  for 
the  side  walls,  Figure  4o7,  shows  a  close  relation  lo  the  hues  of  the 
stain  to  the  wall.  In  no  instance  do  we  find  the  hue  rectangle  of  the 
wood  work  more  than  three  hues  awav  from  that  of  the  waits.  In 
four  instances  thev  are  within  two  hue  rectangles  of  each  other  and  in 
one  instance  they  are  both  within  the  same  rectangle.  This  develops 
the  fact  that  analogous  or  neighl)()ring  gr()ui)ings  of  hues  prevail  in 
relating  the  hues  of  wood  work  and  side  walls. 

An  analogous  group  of  hues  is  an  arrangement  based  upon  a 
selection  of  tints  and  shades  within  three  rectangles  of  each  other,  as 
orange  and  yellow.  These  h.iiiiioiiize  Ixn-ause  yellow  is  mixed  with 
and  becomes  a  hue  connuoii  to  both.  ANliih^  I  lie  jiii.ilogoiis  aiTaiige- 
menl  of  hues  seems  to  he  most  coniiiionly  used.  ;iii(l  wilii.-i  result  that 
seems  lo  justify  its  a<ioi)tion  into  general  iM-aelice,  there  are  other 
arrangements  that  are  ])leasing  to  the  eye. 

I^'igure  4.)(S  illustrates  wh;it  is  eoniiiioiily  known  ;i>  ;i  conl ruslcd 
grouping  or  arr;ingeinent  of  lines.  It  (■on>i>ls  ol  I  lie  linl>  or  shiides 
of  one  or  moi-e  hues  and  gr;iy.  It  is  the  h.tsis  df  color  h.irinony 
between  sih'er  and  senii-i)i"eeions  stones.  II  I  wo  hnes  ni'e  nsed,  one 
of  Iheni  should  be  i"e(lnee<|  m  elironi;i   to  ne.iiK    ur.iw 


Hue  Range 
for  Wood 
Work  and 
Walls 


Analogous 
Hues 


Contrasted 
Hues 


[204] 


Dominant 
Hue 


Special 
Arrangements 


Hue  Range 
for  Side 
Walls  and 
Ceilings 


Range  of 
Chroma 
for  Stains 


Figure  463  is  typical  of  still  another  form  of  positive  hue  group- 
ing. By  consulting  the  yellow  hue  rectangle  of  Figure  457  it  is  noted 
that  the  wood  work,  side  walls,  and  ceiling  of  Figure  463  arc  all  con- 
tained in  one  7'ectanglc.  This  classes  this  color  scheme  as  an  example 
of  dominant  arrangement  which  may  be  simply  defined  as  the  tints 
and  shades  of  one  hue.  The  arrangement  does  not  have  the  variety 
supplied  by  analogous  grouping,  introducing  as  it  does,  two  hues  from 
different  rectangles,  but  for  large  surfaces  dominant  grouping  is  a 
conservative  and  safe  arrangement.  Its  tendencv  toward  monotonv 
should  be  guarded  against  by  the  introduction  of  some  object  high 
in  chroma  in  the  room  decorative  scheme.  A  bright  colored  vase 
will  accomplish  this  successfully.     Rule  I'^o,  Chapter  X\ TI. 

Rule  I'^f.  Color  schemes  for  ivood  ivork  and  side  ivalls  should 
preferably  be  selected  from  one  of  the  following  groupings:  analogous, 
contrasted,  or  dominant  arrangements  of  hues.  Analogous  grouping  is 
preferable  ivhere  variety  of  hue  is  desirable. 

The  above  rule  is  not  to  be  taken  as  arbitrarv. 
of  competent  designers  attractive  color  schemes 
that  differ  materially  from  the  above  suggestions 
usual  home   setting,   the  above  arrangement   may 


In  the  hands 

are    developed 

But,   for  the 

be  regarded 


as 

satisfactory,  and  is  given  with  the  idea  of  bringing  the  school  shop 
work  and  the  home  environment  into  closer  color  harmony.  A 
specimen  of  special  arrangement  is  given  by  the  Circle  3A.  This  is 
delft  blue,  which  harmonizes  with  dark  mahogany  in  a  satisfactory 
manner. 

In  adjusting  the  hues  for  side  walls  and  ceilings,  the  relations 
should  be  of  the  closest.  The  plotting  of  ceiling  hues  in  Figure  457 
shows  a  strong  tendency  for  the  ceiling  to  be  colored  with  a  tint  of 
the  side  walls  (dominant  arrangement),  or  by  a  tint  selected  from  the 
next  rectangle  (analogous  arrangement).  Yellow  or  yellow-green, 
very  light  and  much  reduced  in  chroma,  seems  to  be  the  almost 
universal  custom.  This  is  due  to  the  strongly  light  reflecting  qualities 
of  yellow. 

Rule  12g.  Ceilings  should  be  colored  by  a  lighter  tint  of  the  side 
walls  or  by  a  lighter  tint  of  an  analogous  hue. 

Stains,  as  they  occupy  a  comparatively  limited  area  in  the  room 
color  scheme,  are  of  their  full  chroma  value  or  reduced  to  three- 


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[  205  ] 


fourths  chroma.  In  only  one  instance  (18),  Figure  463,  do  we  find 
a  reduction  to  one-fourth  chroma,  demanded  b}'  the  nearly  gray 
color  scheme  of  the  walls.  We  find  it  to  be  an  established  fact  that 
small  areas  are  capable  of  enrichment  by  colors  of  greater  purity 
and  higher  chroma  than  larger  surfaces.  A  silver  pin  may  be  designed 
to  contain  a  stone  of  high  brilliancy,  but  a  wall  surface  has  to  be  ma- 
terially reduced  in  chroma  to  possess  color  harmony. 

Rule  12h.  Stains  arc  usually  not  reduced  to  below  three-fourths 
chromatic  intensity.  Nearly  gray  side  ivalls,  however,  call  for  a  reduc- 
tion to  one-fourth  intensity. 

As  the  walls  occupy  a  large  proportionate  area  of  the  color 
scheme  of  the  room  we  find  it  necessary  to  reduce  them  in  chroma  in 
order  to  soften  the  glare  of  too  brilliant  colors.  Figure  457  shows 
only  one  instance  (14)  of  a  hue  unreduced  in  chroma.  It  is  retained 
at  the  full  chroma  for  that  yalue  on  account  of  the  brightness  of  the 
sage  green  wood  stain.  The  other  hues  represented  in  the  diagram 
are  grayed  or  reduced  in  chroma  from  three-fourths  to  less  than  one- 
fourth,  or  to  nearly  neutral  gray. 

Rule  l'-2i.  Wall  colors  are  usually  reduced  to  three-fourths  chroma 
to  a  minimum  reduction  of  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma. 

The  same  tendency  toward  chromatic  reduction  is  to  be  seen  in  ceil- 
ings,  although  we  have  two  examples  in  Figure  457  (10  and  13)  of  nearly 
white  and  high  light  ceilings  that  have  not  been  reduced.  To  avoid 
crudity  a  reduction  in  chroma  bv  the  addition  of  gray  is  to  be  desired. 

Rule  l*2j.  Ceilings  should  usually  be  reduced  in  chroma  to  three- 
fourths  intensity  with  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma  as  a  mini  in  ion 
reduction. 

Willi  a  single  e\cej)li()n  (3A),  the  stains  and  wiill  lints  have 
been  selected  between  and  including  the  red  and  gr(>(Mi  rectangles. 
This  is  customary  and  gives  safe  lnu>  rang(>  as  it  insnres  [\\c 
retention  of  wall  and  ceiling  hues  in  unified  conformity  w  ilh  llie  warm 
tints  of  the  natural  wood  and  its  e(|ually  dark  Inicd  st;iins. 

Tlie  following  is  a  list  of  dry  colors  wliich  may  be  jtnrclia.-rd  a!  a 
j)ainl  or  hardware  store  for  a  few  ccnls  a  |)()iin(i.  ll  is  suggested 
for  the  designer  or  craftsman  who  desires  to  (in!  his  own  wall  or 
C(Mling.  While  oil  \yd'\nl  is  to  be  j)refeiTe(L  these  colors  are  readily 
and  (juiekly  aj)plie<l  and  form  ser\ieeabl<'  backgrounds. 


Range  of 
Chroma 
for  Stain 


Range  of 
Chroma  for 
Walls 


Range  of 
Chroma 
for  Ceilings 


Summary 


Wall  and 

Ceiling 

Pigments 


[206] 


Calcimine 


Opaque 

Wood 

Finishes 


Northern 
Exposure 


The  pigments  are  white,  yellow  ochre,  chrome  yellow  light, 
chrome  yellow  medium,  and  chrome  yellow  dark,  burnt  and  raw 
sienna,  turkey  and  raw  umber,  ultramarine  and  ivory  black.  The 
greens  are  preferably  mixed  by  adding  ultramarine  to  one  of  the 
chromes.  Shades  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  siennas,  umbers, 
or  black.  Black  and  white,  mixed  to  a  gray,  are  useful  in  reducing 
the  chroma  of  a  hue.  The  stains  should  be  mixed  with  hot  water 
and  a  small  amount  of  glue  for  a  binder.  White  occasionally  comes 
prepared  with  glue  in  its  composition. 

While  this  chapter  has  emphasized  the  transparent  finish  for 
wood  treatment,  as  a  method  best  fitted  for  woods  with  a  distinct 
grain,  it  is  realized  that  oil  painting  of  w^ood  surfaces  has  a  distinct 
and  important  part  to  play  in  the  interior  decorative  scheme  of  a 
room.  This  latter  method  is  adapted  to  soft  woods  without  a  strongly 
marked  grained  surface.  The  warm  hued  rectangle  of  the  spectrum: 
red,  orange,  and  yellow  with  their  associated  hues,  which  are  so  inti- 
mately connected  wdth  the  natural  wood  colors  and  their  stains,  no 
longer  stand  as  a  limiting  factor  in  controlling  the  color  of  the  wood  or 
the  side  walls.  The  opaque  nature  of  oil  paints  allows  us  to  disregard 
the  color  of  the  wood,  and  thus  select  any  hue  of  oil  paint  which  har- 
monizes with  the  walls  and  decorative  scheme  of  the  room.  The 
rules  stated  herein  are  equally  applicable  to  opaque  colors.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  reduce  oil  paints  in  chroma  beyond  the  point  indicated 
in  Rule  12h. 

While  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  chapter  to  enter  into  a 
complete  discussion  of  the  subject  of  interior  decoration,  the  following 
suggestions  are  considered  as  applying  to  our  subject:  viz.,  the 
surface  enrichment  of  large  areas.  Complete  color  harmony  in 
interior  decoration  generally  demands  the  presence  of  the  three  so- 
called  primary  hues:  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  in  some  form  in  the  wall 
color  scheme.  While  this  is  not  always  possible,  two  may  be  intro- 
duced as  follows. 

The  light  from  the  north,  northeast,  or  northwest  is  cold  blue, 
supplying  blue  in  the  decorative  scheme  of  three  primary  colors: 
blue,  red,  and  yellow.  The  wall  tints  should  then  be  composed  of 
combinations  of  red  and  yellow,  the  remaining  primaries.  These 
may  he  applied  to  the  walls  by  means  of  tints  of  yellow  and  orange 


[  207  ] 

reduced  in  chroma,  or  shades  of  orange  and  orange-red.     No  greens 
or  bhies  should  be  used. 

The   hght   from   the  south,   southeast,   and    southwest    supphes 
plenty  of  yellow.     It  is,  then,  necessary  to  add  the  remaining  prim-     Southern 
aries  or  at  least  one  of  them  in  the  form  of  gray-blue,  orange,  or     Exposure 
orange-yellow,    reduced    to   one-fourth    chroma    and    j)ractically    to 
neutrality  or  grayish-reds  and  greens,  well  reduced  in  chroma.     Any 
hue  strongly  yellow^  should  be  avoided. 

Certain  hues  materially  affect  the  apparent  size  of  a  room.     If 

the  room  is  small  certain  values  and  hues  will  make  it  ai)pear  nuich 

smaller.     Dark  values,  as  a   rule,  make  the  room   look  smaller  bv     tt  „    „ 

Hue  upon 

seemingly    drawing   the   walls   closer   together.     Red    contracts   the     Apparent 
apparent  size  of  a  room,  while  yellow  and  blue  ex})aud   il.     Green     Size 
and  shades  of  yellow  and  red-orange,  if  not  too  dark,  have  little  effect 
upon  the  apparent  size  of  a  room. 

SUMMARY    OF    DESIGN    STEPS 

(a)    Determine,  by  its  exjjosiire,  the  ivind  of  light  the  room  receives. 
(6)    Choose  a  hue  for  the  walls  ciiihodying  one  or  l>otli  of  the  primary  hues  not 
represented  by  this  daylight. 

(c)  Select  a  value  and  cliroina  for  this  hue  in  accordance  w  itli  I{uhs  l'2li  and  1^21. 

(d)  Select  a  hue,  value,  and  chroina  for  the  ceiling  in  accordance  with   I{nles 

12g,  12e,  and  12j. 

(e)  Select  the  correct  hue,  value,  and  chroma  foi   paint  or  stain  for  the  wood 

work  in  accordance  with  Rules  Hi,  lin,  and  I'-Zh. 

SUGGESTED    PROHLEMS 

Develop  the  color  scheme  for  the  wails,  ceiling,  and  wood  wdrk  of  a  room 
with  a  northern  exposure;  southern  exposure.  Mix  the  >t;iit\  for  .i  piece  of 
oak  to  harmonize  with  the  wood  work  and  walls  of  the  Ii\iiig  room  of  your  liome. 

Determine  the  wall  tints  to  harmonize  willi  dark  weal  lured  oak.  Mix 
them  from  dry  colors. 

SUMMAin'    OF    RII.ES 

Rule  l'2a.  .(//  (irrrd/jc  irotxl  .itaiii  is  to  he  rvtuimd  hrlirrrn  flu  ruliiis  middle 
(ukI  loir  durlc. 

Rule  \-l\).  An  avtrage  uiill  line  is  to  he  rtliiiiK<l  btlinin  llic  values  liijlit 
and  middle. 

Rule  lie.  All  (inriujr  rriliiKj  line  is  to  lie  retained  hetireen  the  rallies  irliitc 
(minus)  and  light. 

|{ule  li2d.  The  relation  hetineii  the  side  trails  and  furniture,  trim,  ete., 
should  III    reldiued  leitliiii  the  raiiije  of  four  rallies  or  less,  as  loir  liijhl  and  ilarh. 


[  ^208  ] 

Rule  12e.  The  relation  between  the  side  walls  and  ceiling  should  be  within 
the  range  of  three  values  or  less,  as  high  light  and  low  light. 

Rule  l'2f.  Color  schemes  for  wood  work  and  side  ivalls  should  preferably 
be  selected  from  one  of  the  following  groupings:  analogous,  contrasted,  or  dominant 
arrangements  of  hues.  Analogous  grouping  is  preferable  where  variety  of  hue  is 
desirable. 

Rule  l'2g.  Ceilings  should  be  colored  by  a  lighter  tint  of  the  side  ivalls  or  by  a 
lighter  tint  of  an  analogous  hue. 

Rule  12h.  Stains  are  usually  not  reduced  to  below  three-fourths  chromatic 
intensity.  Nearly  gray  side  ivalls,  however,  call  for  a  reduction  to  one-fourth 
intensity. 

Rule  Hi.  Wall  colors  are  usually  reduced  to  three-fourths  chroma  to  a  min- 
imum reduction  of  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma. 

Rule  l^j.  Ceilings  should  usually  he  reduced  in  chroma  to  three-fourths  in- 
tensity, with  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma  as  a  minimum  reduction. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  should  we  have  in  mind  when  staining  furniture  for  the  home? 

2.  Why  are  the  side  walls  important  when  considering  the  color  scheme  of 

a  room? 

3.  Give  the  value  range  for  the  average  wood  stains,  side  walls,  and  ceiling. 

4.  State  the  value  range  to  include  wood  work,  furniture,  trim,  and  side  walls. 

5.  State  the  value  range  that  includes  side  walls  and  ceilings. 

6.  Give  the  hue  range  for  wood  work  and  side  walls. 

7.  Explain  the  analogous,  contrasted,  and  dominant  groupings  of  hues  and 

name  two  examples  of  each. 

8.  Give  the  hue  range  for  side  walls  and  ceilings.      Name  several  good  combi- 

nations. 

9.  Give  range  of  chroma  for  wood  work,  side  walls,  and  ceiling.      Explain  the 

reasons  for  each  change  of  chroma. 

10.  What  experience  have  you  had  in  mixing  calcimine  for  wall  decoration.^ 

11.  Discuss  opaque  finishes  for  wood. 

12.  Give  the  hues  for  rooms   with   northern  and  southern  exposures.      Why.f* 

13.  State  the  effect  of  hues  upon  the  apparent  size  of  a  room. 


Chapter  XVII 

COLOR    AND    ITS    RELATION    TO    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS 

DESIGN 


Small  Surfaces  in  Clay  and  Metal 

Before  proceeding  to  the  discussion  of  the  apphcation  of  color 
to  clay  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  what  technical  possibilities 
are  presented. 

Plain  glazing  of  the  entire  surface  is  a  common  form  of  pottery 
enrichment.  A  piece  of  ware,  thus  glazed,  may  become  a  point  of 
concentration  in  the  color  arrangement  of  a  room,  and  should  be 
definitely  located  in  that  arrangement.  The  ware  may  harmonize 
with  the  background  (side  wall)  by  analogy,  dominance,  or  contrast 
or  through  complementary  coloring.  Rule  h^o.  A  glaze  from 
the  diagram  in  Figure  464  should  be  selected  as  forming  a  i)art  in 
the  selected  arrangement.  Side  wall  (11),  Figure  4.")7,  would  harmo- 
nize with  glaze  C9  by  virtue  of  its  dominant  relation  or  wilh  M7 
through  analogy.  The  glaze  selected  should  be  higher  in  chroma 
than  the  side  wall  and  will  be  found  to  form  a  cheerful  and  brilliant 
element  in  the  room  color  scheme.  The  definite  linking  of  these 
different  factors  of  interior  decoration  into  unity  has  been  earnestly 
advocated  in  these  chai)ters.  Figures  457  and  404  show  the  possibil- 
ities of  cross  references. 

It  soon  becomes  apparent  because  of  flic  coloring  of  clay  wai-e 
that  the  designer  nuist  know  something  of  (he  color  j)()ssil)ilities  of 
glazed  pottery  forms.  The  decorative  processes  wiM'e  e\j)lained  at 
some  length  in  Chapter  Xll,  \vh(M'ein  wc  (icsci-ibcd  the  eoniinon 
t\pes  of  surface  enrichment.  As  wc  aic  now  piiinarily  considcM-ing 
the  (|uestion  of  color,  we  first  regard  I  he  waic  as  iniil'onnly  glazed 
with  either  clear  or  mall  glaze.  'I'Ik*  former  is  bi-illiani,  of  high 
chroma,  and  has  a  highly  |)()lishe(l  surface,  while  I  he  la  tier  is  dull 
surfaced  alaze  of  1o\v(m-  chronia. 


Color  Applied 
to  the 
Surface 
Enrichment 
of  Clay 


Stains  for 
Glazes 


401) 


[  ^210  ] 


Metallic 
Oxides 


Harmony 
of  Color 


Proportionate 
Distribution 
of  Color 
for  Small 
Areas 


Metallic  oxides  are  used  to  stain  or  color  clear  glazes,  while  under- 
glaze  colors  are  ordinarily  used  for  niatts.  The  percentage  of  stains 
to  be  added  to  the  dry  glazes  is  stated  in  Figure  464  where  thej^  can 
be  readily  traced  to  their  approximate  locations  in  the  hue  rectangles 
by  the  reference  letters  Ml,  Cl,  etc.  Certain  oxides  are  weak  coloring 
agents  and  require  larger  amounts  of  oxide  to  color  the  glaze 
l)erceptibly. 

Iron  and  copper  oxide  may  be  mixed  to  produce  a  large  variety 
of  yellow  greens;  other  combinations  will  suggest  themselves.  It 
is  possible  to  use  oxides  as  well  as  underglaze  colors  for  staining 
matt  glazes. 

We  have,  to  this  point,  considered  the  enrichment  of  large  sur- 
faces whose  areas  were  ar])itrarily  determined  by  construction,  as, 
for  example,  the  extent  of  wall  surface,  ceiling,  or  wood  trim  and 
furniture.  The  essential  element  in  this  type  of  problem  is  the 
selection  of  a  one,  two,  or  three-hued  color  arrangement  that  would 
harmoniously  link  ceiling,  wall,  and  wood  together.  If  we  had 
introduced  stencilling  or  figured  wall  pai)er  it  would  have  imme- 
diately called  for  the  solution  of  another  j^roblem,  the  factor  of  how 
much  strong  color  to  use.  In  other  words,  it  would  have  introduced 
the  question  of  proportionate  distribution  of  color  upon  a  given  area. 
It  was  thought  best  to  limit  the  subject  of  proportionate  distribution 
to  small  areas,  where  the  designer  is  often  forced  to  make  decisions 
and  to  divide  surfaces  into  proportionate  color  parts  for  his  surface 
enrichment. 

We  may  now  repeat  the  definition  of  harmony  with  the  accen- 
tuation placed  upon  a  certain  wording  directly  applicable  to  small 
surfaces.  Harmony  is  obtained  by  the  proper  balancing  and  pro- 
portionate distribution  of  value,  hue,  and  chroma  upon  a  surface  to 
give  a  unified  and  pleasing  reaction  to  the  eye  and  intellect. 

Rule  12k.  Proportionate  distribution  of  hue,  value,  and  chroma  in 
surface  enrichment  calls  for  a  small  area,  high  in  chroma,  and  contrast- 
ing in  value  to  the  rest  of  the  surface  but  harmonizing  with  it.  This 
is  usually  located  in  the  area  of  concentration.  The  larger  areas  are 
to  be  sufficiently  reduced  in  chroma  and  value  to  form  a  slight  contrast 
with  the  background. 

Figure  4()5  illustrates  some  of  the  salient  factors  of  distribution 


[^211] 


of  values  and  hues.  Hues  of  or  near  standard  chromatic  intensity 
should  be  used  in  small  quantities  and  should  accentuate  the  point 
of  concentration.  These  small  areas  are  to  be  regarded  as  giving 
brilliancy  and  life  to  the  surface  and  to  hold  the  eye  at  the  point  of 
concentration.  Very  small  surfaces  are  capable  of  sustaining  spots 
of  high  chroma,  as  is  shown  in  the  silver  pin  of  Figure  4G8.  The 
remaining  portions  of  the  surface  enrichment  should  be  kept  subordi- 
nated in  hue  and  value  to  the  point  of  concentration,  but  related  to  it. 
The  bands  of  Figure  465  are  well  reduced  in  value  and  make  little 
contrast  with  the  background,  thus  forming  true  surface  enrichment 
or  that  which  neither  rises  above  or  ai)i)arently  falls  through  the 
surface.  The  point  of  concentration  is  higher  in  chroma  than  the 
surrounding  areas. 

Rule  121.  One  hue,  or  a  group  of  analogous  hues  should  dominate 
all  color  schemes.  The  point  of  concentration  may  be  emphasized  by  one 
hue  relatedto  the  other  hues  by  ( /)  contrasted,  (^)  dominant,  (•>')  analogous, 
(4)  complementary  relations.  This  hue  sJiould  malrc  sliij/itly  stronger 
value  and  chroma  contrast  than  the  remaining  hues. 

Rule  12m.  An  extreme  range  of  fire  ralues  is  generally  sufficient  to 
supply  contrast  to  a  design  but  still  retain  its  value  unity.  Ixcstrainf  in 
the  use  of  values  is  essential. 

Rule  I'Sn.  The  amount  of  cfiroma  may  be  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  decrease  in  tlu-  decorated  area.  K.vceptions  may  be  made  to  this 
tinder  Rule  12o. 

In  the  vase,  Figure  4()4A,  I  he  (kvsigner  selected  luies  from  iicigli- 


])orin<>"   or   analogous   rectangles   green   and    blue-green. 


'r> 


Tl 


\c   valne 


range  is  restricted  lo  four  steps  and  the  areas  of  concentration  are 
placed  at  the  top  of  I  he  vase  by  the  stronger  value  and  hue  contrasts 
of  the  foliage  of  the  trees  and  dark  blue  rim.  In  both  j-'igures,  4(I4A 
and  4()5,  the  designer  has  used  analogous  luie  arrangements.  This 
is  suggested  lo  the  l)eginner  as  serviceal)l('  for  objects  exceeding  the 
dimensions  of  jewelry  and  includes  such  j)robl(Mns  as  vase  I'ornis, 
book  stalls,  and  brackets.  Contrasted  and  <lominanl  arrangements 
are  also  good,  safe,  and  sound  arrangements,  l)nt  tail  to  gi\(>  I  lie  \ar- 
iety  of  color  to  small  objects  all'ordcd  by  analogous  grouping.  At  a 
later  j)oinl  in  this  cliai)!*'!-  the  subjcci  of  (•oni|)lcni('nlary  coloring 
will  suggest  a  new  arrangi'nieiiL  lo  llie  reader,  ImiI   tins  selienie  is  to 


Examples  of 
Proportionate 
Distribution 


Value  and 
Hue  and 
Chroma 
Range  for 
Small  Areas 


[  21^2 


Over 

Reduction 
in  Chroma 


Color 
Applied  to 
the  Surface 
Enrichment 
of  Metal 


Enamels 


Transparent 
Enamels 


be  left  until  he  has  sufficient I3'  mastered  the  possibilities  of  the 
arrangements  just  indicated. 

Five  values  form  a  safe  value  range  for  small  objects.  It  is  good 
practice  to  keep  the  larger  areas,  including  the  background,  within 
three  steps  of  each  other  and  to  allow  the  point  of  concentration  to 
form  the  strongest  value  contrast. 

The  chroma  may  range  from  full  to  three-quarters  intensity. 
Reduction  to  one-half  or  one-fourth  intensity  is  inclined  to  make  a 
small  object  appear  washed  out  or  chalky.  Shades,  at  their  full 
intensity,  are  good  colors  to  use  for  small  surfaces  in  wood.  Small 
enameled  objects  may  be  developed  in  full  chroma,  while  pottery 
forms  range  from  full  chroma  to  one-half  chroma  in  forms  of  slip  and 
underglaze  painting. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  gradually  increasing  chroma  per- 
centage of  the  different  coloring  media  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
reduction  of  the  area  of  the  surface  to  be  enriched.  By  comparing  the 
diagrams  of  Figures  464  and  4.57  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  steady 
movement  toward  the  left  sides  of  the  hue  rectangles  or  toward 
stronger  intensity.  The  wall  areas  are  shown  to  be  lowest  in  chroma, 
followed  by  the  increasing  intensity  of  wood  stains,  glazes,  and  enamels. 

Enamels,  connnonly  used  to  enrich  metal  surfaces,  are  highest 
in  chroma  of  the  decorative  materials  under  discussion  and  are  to  be 
treated  with  nearly  as  much  restraint  as  one  would  use  in  enriching 
a  surface  with  semi-precious  stones,  for  strong  hues  are  cheapened  by 
excessive  use.  The  plate  in  Figure  436  has  small  circles  filled  with 
enamel  and  a  large  field  of  chased  or  uncolored  design. 

Transparent  enamels  are  comparable  to  clear  glazes  and  the 
coloring  medium  is  the  same.  Their  preparation  is  difficult  and 
therefore  trade  names  have  been  given  in  the  table  of  Figure  464. 
As  will  be  seen  by  consulting  the  diagram  of  Figure  464,  Tl,  T'2,  T3, 
etc.,  they  are  all  at  their  full  value  intensity.  Enamels,  as  supplied 
by  the  trade,  are  nmch  too  intense  for  use  in  enrichment  and  conse- 
quently are  applied  over  a  coating  of  colorless  clear  enamel,  tech- 
nically named  flux  or  fondant.  As  the  thickness  of  coating  of  enamel 
may  vary,  the  hue  classification  is  to  be  regarded  as  approximate. 

Opaque  enamels  may  be  compared  with  matt  glazes,  for,  while 
the  texture  of  the  surface  has  a  distinct  gloss,  the  enamels  themselves 


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are  not  so  strong  in  hue  as  the  transparent  enamels.  By  referring 
to  the  diagram  of  Figure  464,  it  may  be  seen  that  many  of  the  opaque 
enamels  are  reduced  in  chroma,  thus  accounting  for  their  softened  hue. 

Metals  are  capable  of  considerable  change  of  color  by  the  appli- 
cation of  chemicals  to  the  surface.  Potassium  sulphuret  will  lower 
the  surface  value  of  silver  or  copper  to  a  rich  velvety  black  associated 
with  antiques.  This  may  be  removed  in  places  naturally  subjected 
to  wear,  thus  varying  the  dead  black  appearance.  Copper  and  brass 
may  be  coated  with  salt  and  vinegar  or  verdigris  to  give  the  surface 
a  corroded  and  greenish  appearance.  Heating  is  a  fugitive  method 
of  coloring  and  is,  therefore,  not  considered. 

These  surface  changes  may  be  utilized  to  harmonize  metal  and  its 
environment,  as,  for  example,  copper  trinnnings  and  a  shade  for  a 
pottery  lamp;  or  it  may  be  used  to  reduce  the  brightness  of  the 
natural  copper  surface. 

The  surfaces  of  metals  may  be  changed  with  actual  manipulation 
of  the  surface  by  frosting  or  sanding  and  plating.  Gold  may  be 
readily  plated  with  gold  to  bring  it  into  closer  harmony  with  the 
stone.  Plating,  api)lied  to  base  metals,  merely  to  give  the  impres- 
sion of  a  more  expensive  metal,  is  to  be  discouraged. 

One  has  to  consider  metal  as  a  background  in  nuich  the  same 
manner  as  we  considered  wall  surfaces  as  a  background  for  stained 
furniture.  Whatever  color  is  applied  to  the  surface  must  harmonize 
in  proportionate  distribution  as  well  as  hue,  value,  and  chroma.  We 
have  a  small  amount  of  leeway  for  varying  the  background  by  the 
different  processes  of  oxidation  and  plating. 

As  one  of  the  more  common  processes,  lei  us  consider  the  ap])li- 
cation  of  enamel  to  cop^xM-  in  I  lie  form  of  (•liam])leve  enrichment. 
Our  first  thought  would  be  the  analysis  of  the  natural  ('opi)er  color. 
It  is  found  to  be  a  shade  of  orange-red  and  will,  therefore,  readily 
harmonize  with  the  anulinjou.s  oranges  and  reds,  as  they  both  have  the 
common  hue  of  red.  '^PluM-e  should  be  a  slight  contrast  of  value 
between  these  enamels  and  the  background.  If  this  contrast  is  not 
present,  it  is  well  to  oxidize  slightly  the  eoj)per  to  lower  its  value  and 
thus  produce  the  contrast. 

The  fourth  harnionions  hue  combination,  that  of  complementary 
arrangenuMil  or  gi'ouping,  has  b(>en  left   to  lli<>  last  as  its  use  is  more 


Opaque 
Enamels 


Oxidation 


Harmony 

through 

Oxidation 


Metal 
Backgrounds 


Enamel  on 
a  Copper 
Background 


[  ^214  J 


Complemen- 
tary Arrange- 
ment 


The  Relation 
of  Colored 
Glazes  to 
Interior 
Decoration 
of  a  Room 


closely  associated  with  small  multi-colored  projects  and  small  areas. 
A  hue  approximately  complementary  to  the  initial  hue  is  found  by 
counting  seven  rectangles  to  the  right  or  left  of  that  hue;  this  will 
give  the  hue  complementary^  to  the  initial  hue.  Thus,  starting  w^ith 
red  and  moving  through  seven  rectangles  toward  the  right,  we  find 
the  complement  to  be  green.  Any  two  hues  so  selected  will  be  found 
to  enhance  the  l)rilliancy  of  each  other.  The  best  results  are  secured 
when  one  hue  dominates  the  color  scheme  by  its  increased  area. 
Pottery  may  be  adapted  to  a  complementary  color  scheme  by  Rule  l'-2i. 

Rule  I'^o.  Small  one  or  iwo-hucd  projects  in  day,  designed  to  be 
used  as  a  part  of  the  decorative  color  scheme  for  a  room  should  bear  a 
contrasted,  dominant,  analogous,  or  complementary  relation  to  the  side 
walls  of  the  room.  The  project  may  be  7nuch  higher  in  chroma  than  the 
side  ivalls. 

To  find  a  glaze  that  will  harmonize  with  the  side  walls  of  a  room 
by  complementary  arrangement  of  hues,  select  the  desired  wall  tint 
from  the  diagram  in  Figure  457.  Find  the  similar  hue  rectangle  in 
the  diagram  of  Figure  464  and,  starting  with  this  rectangle  as  one, 
count  seven  hues  from  the  side  wall  rectangle  in  either  direction. 
In  the  seventh  rectangle  or  in  a  neighboring  one  will  usually  be  found 
a  number  of  glazes  answering  the  requirements  and  bearing  a  com- 
plementary relation  to  the  side  walls.  Select  a  glaze  from  these  that 
w^ill  make  a  contrast  of  chroma  or  value  w  ith  the  side  wall.  Example : 
background  or  side  wall.  Figure  457,  No.  8,  is  in  the  orange  yellow^ 
rectangle.  Counting  seven  from  this  in  Figure  464  we  find  the  com- 
plement to  be  blue  violet.  As  there  is  no  glaze  in  this  rectangle  we 
will  move  to  its  neighbor  on  the  left.  This  gives  us  clear  glaze,  Cl, 
containing  one  and  one-half  per  cent  black  oxide  of  cobalt,  or  a  matt 
glaze  containing  seven  per  cent  mazarine  blue. 

Glazes  that  will  harmonize  with  side  wall  8  through  dominant 
arrangements  are  found  in  the  same  rectangle,  O  Y,  and  are  num- 
bered M5,  M6,  C7,  C8.  Glazes  that  will  harmonize  by  analogy 
are  C9  and  M7,  and  are  found  in  the  left  and  right  neighboring 
rectangles. 

In  Figure  466,  the  copper  fob,  R  O,  is  combined  with  its  comple- 
mentary blue-green.  Let  us  look  at  Figure  464.  Counting  seven 
intervals  or  hue  rectangles  to  the  right  of  the  orange  red  rectangle  we 


[^21o 


find  T4  which  is  transparent  blue  green  enamel.  We  may  associate 
with  this  an  analogous  enamel  from  the  green  rectangle;  this  proves 
to  be  To  medium  green  transparent  enamel. 

The  point  of  concentration  may  now  be  emphasized  by  an  enamel 
complementary  to  the  blue  green  hue.  Counting  seven  rectangles 
to  the  left  we  again  encounter  the  red  orange  rectangle.  Here  there 
are  no  enamels  but  in  the  red  hue  rectangle  we  find  T7  which  is  slightly 
orange-red.  A  small  portion  of  this,  Rule  1:2k,  is  applied  and  is 
found  to  center  the  design  at  the  point  of  concentration  in  a  satis- 
factory manner.  Slight  oxidation  brings  out  the  colors  of  the 
enamels. 

Upon  attempting  to  develo])  the  same  figure  in  opaque  enamels  it 
is  soon  seen  that  there  are  no  pleasing  complementary  enamels  of  this 
type,  but  many  analogous  coni])inations.  Autumn  ])rown  with  the 
point  of  concentration  developed  in  orange  (03)  would  be  an  excellent 
compromise. 

Rule  V2\).  Correct  color  for  surface  etirichmenf  should  neither 
apparently  rise  above  nor  drop  below  the  surface  to  wJiich  it  is  applied, 
but  should  stay  upon  the  plane  of  that  surface.  Correct  value  and  chroma 
range  icill  accomplish  this. 

The  gray-blue  color  of  silver  lends  itself  to  a  great  number  of  gem 
stones,  forming  examples  of  contrasted  arrangements.  Care  should 
l)e  taken  to  form  contrasts  of  value.  Figure  407  is  an  example  of  a 
weak  and  insipid  combination,  lacking  in  value  and  hue  contrast. 
The  amethvst  of  Figure  408  corrects  this  error,  while  the  oxidation 
of  Figure  4()9  has  i)artially  corrected  the  lack  of  contrast  shown  in 
Figure  407.  These  illustrations  tend  lo  show  that  even  stronger 
contrasts  may  be  allemi)le(l  with  small  gems  and  senii-j)r(H'i()us 
stones  than  with  enamels.  This  again  i)r()ves  the  rule  that  the 
smaller  areas  are  capable  of  sustaining  stronger  contrasts  of  hue, 
value,  and  clironia  than  are  large  ones. 


Development 
of  Design 
for  Enamel 
on  Metal 


Color  for 

Silver 

Enrichment 


SUMMAin'    OF    DKSIC.N    STEPS 


Tlic  outliiu'  of  Uk'  snrl':irc  niiiili  ini'lit   i>  ciin^Klcrcd  :is  0()ini)l('l('. 
(a)    Mktal  ok  Wood.      Aii;iI,\  /c  t  lir  iiackf^'idiiiKl  in  In  il  s  hue,  \;ilur.  and  cliroma. 
Ci-AY.      S<'lc(l    a    li.iik^'riiiind    thai    will    liariiii  mi/A-   willi    tlu'   cont  rolliiif; 
line  or  hues  of  1  III-  proposi'd  tolor  scliriiic.       Kiile  lio.      If  tins  is  a  one  Inird 


[  ^216  ] 

color  scheme  without  gradation  or  surface  enrichment  the  design  steps 
may  terminate  at  this  point. 

(b)  Metal,  Woou,  and  Clay.     Select  the  extreme  value  range  of  the  color 

scheme,  considering,  if  possible,  the  background  as  a  balancing  or  pivotal 
value  point  upon  which  the  values  may  bala-nce  above  and  below.  As 
the  side  walls  formed  a  balancing  point  for  the  ceiling  and  furniture  or 
wood  work,  so  may  the  background  of  metal,  wood,  or  colored  clay 
become  a  similar  balancing  factor  for  small  surfaces.      Rule  l'-2m. 

(c)  Metal,   Wood,  and  Clay.     Select  a  hue  or  hues  which  will  harmonize 

with  the  background  through  dominant,  contrasting,  or  analogous  re- 
lations. Rule  121.  In  selecting  the  hues  consider  the  final  placing  of 
the  object. 

{d)  Metal,  Wood,  and  Clay.  Select  a  chroma  range.  Allow  the  point  or 
area  of  concentration  to  have  a  slightly  higher  chromatic  relation  than 
the  other  hues.  The  point  of  concentration  may  be  one  of  the  hues 
already  selected  or  it  may  bear  a  complementary  relation  to  them.  The 
hues  may  be  averaged  and  a  complementary  to  the  average  selected. 
Rule  Un.  '   -.^  .       '      ■■  :  :    .       ' 

{e)  Metal,  Wood,  and  Clay.  Apply  the  rule  of  proportionate  distribution. 
Rule  Uk. 

(J)  Metal  and  Wood.  Using  the  pigments  suggested  in  Chapter  XV,  design 
the  problem.     Test  the  result  by  applying  Rule  l'2p. 

(g)  Clay.  If  the  design  has  been  developed  in  slip  or  underglaze  painting, 
select  a  glaze  for  an  overglaze  coating  that  will  harmonize  with  the 
prevailing  hues  by  dominance  or  analogy.  Other  arrangements  may 
destroy  the  hues  of  the  original  color  scheme. 

(/;)    Develop  the  problem  in  its  material. 

SUGGESTED    PROBLEMS 

Design  a  bowl  for  nasturtiums;  make  the  color  arrangement  harmonize 
through  analogy  with  the  hues  of  the  flowers. 

Design  a  vase  for  chrysanthemums;  make  the  surface  enrichment  and  the 
color  arrangement  harmonize  through  dominance  with  the  hues  of  the  flowers. 

Design  a  hat  pin  for  a  blue  hat;   materials,  copper,  and  transparent  enamels. 

Design  a  brooch  to  be  worn  with  a  gray  dress. 

Design  a  pottery  and  copper  lamp  with  amber  art  glass  in  the  shade. 
Through  oxidation  and  glazing,  bring  the  lamp  into  color  unity. 


SUMMARY    OF    RULES 

Rule  12k.  Proportionate  distribution  of  line,  value,  and  chroma  in  surface 
enrichment  calls  for  a  small  area  high  in  chroma  and  contrasting  in  value  to  the 
rest  of  the  surface,  but  harmonizing  tvith  it.  This  is  usually  located  in  the  area 
of  concentration.  The  larger  areas  are  to  be  sufficiently  reduced  in  chroma  and 
value  to  form  a  slight  contrast  with  the  background. 

Hues  for  Small  Objects 

Hiilc  121.  One  hue,  or  a  group  of  analogous  hues  should  dominate  all  color 
schemes.      The  point  of  concentration  may  be  emphasized  by  one  hue  related  to  the 


[^217] 

other  hues  by  (1)  contrasted,  (2)  dominant,  (-3)  analogous,  or  H)  complementary 
relations.  This  hue  should  mahe  slightly  stronger  value  and  chroma  contrast  than 
the  remaining  hues. 

Values  for  Small  Objects 

Rule  I'Sm.  An  extreme  range  of  five  values  is  generally  sufficient  to  supply 
contrast  to  a  design  but  still  retain  its  value  unity.  Restraint  in  the  use  of  values 
is  essential. 

Chroma  for  Small  Objects 

Rule  ll2n.  The  amount  of  chroma  may  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  de- 
crease in  the  decorated  area.     Exceptions  may  be  made  to  this  under  Rule  12o. 

Rule  12o.  Small  one  or  two-hued  projects  in  clay,  designed  to  be  used  as  a 
part  of  the  decorative  color  scheme  for  a  room  should  bear  a  contrasted,  dominant, 
analogous,  or  complementary  relation  to  the  side  walls  of  the  room.  The  project 
may  be  much  higher  in  chroma  than  the  side  walls. 

Rule  12p.  Correct  color  for  surface  enrichment  should  neither  apparently 
rise  above  nor  drop  beloiv  the  surface  to  ivhich  it  is  applied,  but  should  stay  upon 
the  plane  of  that  surface.     Correct  value  and  chroma  range  will  accomplish  this. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  value  of  mono-hued  pottery  in  the  decorative  scheme  of  a  room. 

2.  What  are  generally  used  as  stains  for  clear  glazes;  matt  glazes? 

3.  What  is  highest  in  chroma — matt,  or  clear  glaze? 

4.  Make  a  table  of  metallic  oxides  and  the  hues  produced  by  them. 

5.  Why  will  iron  and  copper  oxides  produce  a  yellow  green  stain?     What  stains 

will  be  produced  by  cobalt  and  copper  oxides;     cobalt  and  manganese 
oxides;   cobalt  and  nickel  oxides? 

6.  Describe  the  type  of  room  which  you  regard  as  best  fitted  for  clear  glazed 

j)ottery  forms;  matt  glazed  pottery  forms. 

7.  Define  harmony  of  color. 

8.  What    is    meant    by    proportionate    distribution?      Describe    proportionate 

distribution. 

9.  Give    the    value,    hue,    and    chroma    range    for    small    areas.     See    Rules 

121,  12m,  and  12n. 

10.  How  does  the  size  of  the  area  to  be  enriched  b\-  color  afi'ect  the  color  medium, 

i.e.,  stains,  glazes,  enamels,  etc.? 

11.  Dcscrilx'  enamels,  their  types,  characteristics,  and  range  of  hues.      Consult 

catalogs  for  fuller  possiljilitics. 

12.  What  is  the  effect  of  oxidation;    what  is  its  \  ahic? 

i;j.    Describe    fully    (■<)iiii)li'iiHntary    arrangements    and    give    illustrations    for 
enamel  on  silver  or  co|)|)er. 

14.  State  the  color  scheme  for  a  fob  to  i)c  worn  with  a  blue-green  dress;    with  a 

gray  suit  for  a  man. 

15.  Select   a  stone  for  a  >il\cr  broodi   lliat    wdiild   li.irmouize  with  a   light   blue 

dress;     for  a  dress  of  orange  dark   Iiim'  and   \aliii-.      See  catalogs  of  dealers 
in  semi-[)rcci()us  stones  for  colnr  of  slone^. 
l(i.    \\liat    |)r<il)|rin>   of   line.    \aliie,   and   iliroina    wnnld   ari^e   in   (^ue^lion    l.>? 


SUMMARY   OF   THE   GENERAL  AND   SPECIAL 
RULES  IN  THE  PRECEEDING  CHAPTERS 

Horizontal  and  Vertical  Primary  Masses 

Rule  la.  A  primary  mass  tinisf  be  either  vcrtieal  or  horizontal  according  to 
the  intended  service,  unless  prohibited  by  technical  requirements. 

Proportions  of  the  Primary  Mass 

Rule  lb.  The  primary  mass  should  have  the  ratio  of  one  to  three,  three  to  four, 
three  to  five,  five  to  eight,  seven  to  ten,  or  some  similar  proportion  difficult  for  the  eye 
to  detect  readily  and  analyze. 

Horizontal  Space  Divisions 

Rule  2a.  If  the  primary  tnass  is  divided  into  two  horizontal  divisions,  the 
dominance  should  be  either  in  the  upper  or  the  lower  section. 

Rule  2b.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  three  horizontal  divisions  or 
sections,  the  dominance  should  be  placed  in  the  center  section  with  varying  widths 
in  the  upper  and  lower  thirds. 

Sequential  Progression  of  Minor  Horizontal  Space  Divisions 

Rule  2c.  A  primary  mass  may  be  divided  into  three  or  more  smaller  hori- 
zontal masses  or  sections  by  placing  the  larger  mass  or  masses  at  the  bottom  and 
by  sequentially  reducing  the  height  measure  of  each  mass  toward  the  smaller 
division  or  divisions  to  be  located  at  the  top  of  the  mass. 

Vertical  Space  Divisions 

Rule  3a.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  two  vertical  divisions,  the  divisions 
should  be  equal  in  area  and  similar  inform. 

Rule  3b.  If  the  primary  mass  is  divided  into  three  vertical  divisions,  the  center 
division  should  be  the  larger,  with  the  remaining  divisions  of  equal  size. 

Rule  3c.  In  elementary  problems,  if  more  than  three  vertical  divisions  are 
required,  they  should  be  so  grouped  as  to  analyze  into  Rules  Ja,  and  3b,  or  be  exactly 
similar. 

Appendages 

Rule  -la.  The  appendage  should  be  designed  in  unity  with,  and  proportionately 
related  to,  the  vertical  or  horizontal  character  of  the  primary  muss,  but  subordinated 
to  it. 

Rule  4b.  The  appendage  should  have  the  appearance  of  Howing  smoothly 
and,  if  possible,  tangentially  from  the  primary  mass. 

Rule  4c.  The  appendage  should,  if  possible,  echo  or  repeat  some  lines  similar 
in  character  and  direction  to  those  of  the  primary  mass. 

[218] 


[  ^219  ] 

Outline  or  Contour  Enrichment 

Rule  5a.  Outline  enrichment  should  be  subordinated  to  and  support  the 
structure. 

Rule  5b.  Outline  enrichment  should  add  grace,  lightness,  and  variety  to 
the  design. 

Rule  5c.  Outline  enrichment,  by  its  similarity,  should  give  a  sense  of  oneness 
or  unity  to  the  design,  binding  divergent  members  together. 

Rule  5d.  Parts  of  one  design  differing  in  function  should  differ  in  appearance 
hut  be  co-ordinated  with  the  entire  design. 

Rule  5e.  In  cylindrical  forms  outline  curves  iciih  a  vertical  tendency  should 
have  their  turning  points  or  units  of  measurement  in  accordance  with  the  horizontal 
divisions  of  Rules  2a  and  2b. 

Rule  5f.  Dependent  outline  enrichment  should  be  related  to  essential  parts  of 
a  design  and  influenced  by  their  forms  and  functions;  it  must  be  consistent  with  the 
idea  of  the  subject. 

Rule  5g.  A  curve  should  join  a  straight  line  with  either  a  tangential  or  right 
angle  junction. 

Surface  Enrichment 

Postulate.  The  design  should  conform  to  the  limitations  and  requirements 
of  tools,  processes,  and  materials,  and  should  be  durable  and  suitable  for  service. 

Rule  6a.     Surfaces  to  be  enriched  must  adtnit  of  enrichment. 

Rule  6b.  Surface  enrichment  must  be  related  to  the  structural  contours  but 
must  nor  obscure  the  actual  structure. 

Rule  6c.      The  treatment  must  be  appropriate  to  the  material. 

Continuous  Bands  and  Borders  for  Partly  Enriched  Surfaces 

Rule  6d.  Bands  and  borders  .s-hould  have  a  consistent  lateral,  that  is,  onward 
movement. 

Rule  6e.  Bands  and  borders  should  never  have  a  prominent  contrary  motion, 
opposed  to  the  main  forward  movement. 

Rule  6f.  All  component  parts  of  a  border  should  move  in  unison  with  the 
main  movement  of  the  border. 

Rule  6g.  Each  component  part  of  a  border  should  be  strongly  dynamic  and.  if 
possible,  partake  of  the  main  movements  of  the  border. 

Rule  6h.  Borders  intended  for  vertical  surfaces  may  have  a  strongly  upward 
movement  in  addition  to  the  lateral  movement,  provided  the  lateral  movement  dom- 
inates. 

Rule  Gi.  Inlayed  enrichment  should  never  form  strong  or  glaring  con1ra.')ts 
with  the  parent  surface. 

Rule  ()j.  Carved  surface  enrich  nuut  .■should  hare  the  appearance  of  belonging 
to  the  parent  mass. 

Enclosed  Enrichment  —  Pahtlv   Enkk  hi;d  Panels 

H)H    SURF.\CE    EnHK  IIMENT 

Rule  7a.  Marginal  panel  enrichment  should  parallel  or  be  related  to  the 
outlines  of  the  primary  mass  and  to  the  panel  it  is  to  enrich. 

Rule  7b.  Marginal  points  of  concentration  in  panels  should  be  placed  (1)  pref- 
erably at  the  corners  or  (2)  in  the  center  of  each  margin. 

]{u\r  7c.  To  insure  unity  of  design  in  panels,  the  elements  composing  the  point 
of  concentration  and  linlcs  connecting  them  must  be  related  to  the  panel  contour 
and  to  each  other. 


[  220  ] 

Enclosed  Enrichment  —  Fully  Enriched  Panels 
FOR  Surface  Enrichment 

Rule  7d.  The  contours  of  fully  enriched  panels  should  parallel  the  outlines 
of  the  primary  mass  and  repeat  its  proportions. 

Rule  7e.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  fully  enriched  square  panel  may  be 
in  its  center  or  in  its  outer  margin. 

Rule  Tf.  The  points  of  concentration  for  a  fully  enriched  vertical  panel  should 
be  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  panel. 

Rule  7g.  The  fully  enriched  panel  and  its  contents  should  be  designed  in 
unified  relation  to  the  structural  outlines,  with  the  center  line  of  the  panel  coinciding 
with  the  inceptive  axis  of  the  structure. 

Free  Ornament  for  Partly  Enriched  Surfaces 

Rule  8a.  Free  ornament  for  partly  or  fully  enriched  surfaces  should  be  based 
and  centered  upon  an  inceptive  axis  of  the  structure. 

Rule  8b.  Free  ornament  should  be  related  and  subordinated  to  the  structural 
surfaces. 

Rule  8c.  Points  of  concentration  in  free  enrichment  of  vertically  placed  masses 
are  usually  located  in  and  around  the  inceptive  axis  and  above  or  below  the  geometric 
center  of  the  design. 

Surface  Enrichment  of  Clay 

Rule  9a.  Surface  enrichment  of  clay  must  be  so  designed  as  to  be  able  to  tvith- 
stand  the  action  of  heat  to  which  all  ware  must  be  submitted. 

Rule  9b.  Incised,  pierced,  and  modeled  decoration  in  clay  should  be  simple 
and  bold  and  thus  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  material. 

Rule  9c.  A  border  should  not  be  located  at  the  point  of  greatest  curvature  in  the 
contour  of  a  cylindrical  form.  The  contour  curve  is  of  sufficient  interest  in  itself 
at  that  point. 

Surface  Enrichment  of  Base  and  Precious  Metals 
For  Small  Masses 

Rule  10a.  Designs  in  precious  metals  should  call  for  the  minimum  amount  of 
metal  necessary  to  express  the  idea  of  the  designer  for  two  reasons:  (1)  good  taste; 
{2)  economy  of  material. 

Rule  10b.  Contour  and  surface  enrichment  should  never  appear  to  compete 
for  attention  in  the  same  design. 

Rule  10c.  Parts  of  a  design  differing  in  function  should  differ  in  appearance 
but  be  co-ordinated  with  the  entire  design. 

Rule  lOd.  Surface  enrichment  should  at  some  point  parallel  the  contours  of 
both  primary  mass  and  point  of  concentration  especially  whenever  the  latter  is  a  stone 
or  enamel. 

Rule  lOe.  In  the  presence  of  either  sto7ie  or  enamel  as  a  point  of  concentration, 
surface  enrichment  should  be  regarded  as  an  unobtrusive  setting,  or  background. 

Rule  lOf.  Stone  or  enamel  used  as  a  point  of  concentration  should  form  contrast 
with  the  metal,  either  in  color,  brilliancy,  or  value,  or  all  three  combined. 

Rule  lOg.  The  inceptive  axis  should  pass  through  and  coincide  with  one  axis 
of  a  stone  and  at  the  same  time  be  sympathetically  related  to  the  structure. 


[  ^^21  ] 

Rule  lOh.  The  position  of  the  inceptive  axis  should  be  determined  by:  (i)  use 
of  the  project  as  ring,  pendant,  or  bar  pin,  (2)  character  of  the  primary  mass  as 
either  vertical  or  horizontal  in  proportion. 

Rule  lOi.  Caution  should  be  exercised  with  regard  to  the  use  of  enamel. 
Over-decoration  by  this  material  tends  to  cheapen  both  process  and  design. 

Rule  lOj.  All  surface  enrichment  should  have  an  appearance  of  compactness 
or  unity.  Pierced  spots  or  areas  should  be  so  used  as  to  avoid  the  appearance 
of  having  been  scattered  on  the  surface  without  thought  to  their  coherence. 

Rule  10k.  Built,  carved,  and  chased  enrichment  should  have  the  higher  planes 
near  the  point  of  concentration.  It  is  well  to  have  the  stone  as  the  highest  point  above 
the  primary  inass.  When  vsing  this  form  of  enrichment,  the  stone  should  never 
appear  to  rise  abruptly  from  the  primary  mass,  but  should  be  approached  by  a  series 
of  rising  planes. 

Rule  101.  The  lanes  or  margins  betiveen  enameled  spots  should  be  narroiver 
than  the  lane  or  margin  between  the  enamel  and  the  contour  of  the  primary  mass. 

Rule  10m.  Transparent  and  opaque  stones  or  enamel  should  not  be  used  in  the 
same  design. 


Surface  Enrichment  of  Base  and  Precious  Metals 
For  Large  Primary  Masses 

Rule  Ua.  The  preliminary  steps  toward  surface  enrichment  should  be 
thought  out  before  they  are  drawn. 

Rule  lib.  Conservative  application  should  mark  the  use  of  surface  enrichment 
of  large  masses.  Its  use  should:  (1)  lighten  or  soften  necessarily  heavy  construction; 
(2)  support  or  apparently  strengthen  good  structure;  (J)  add  interest  to  large 
unbroken  and  uninteresting  surfaces. 

Rule  lie.  The  type  of  design  unit  for  large  masses  should  be  bolder  than 
similar  designs  for  small  primary  masses. 

Rule  lid.  The  eye  should  he  attracted  to  one  principal  zone  nf  enrichment, 
whether  located  upon  the  primary  mass,  appendage,  termin(d,  links,  or  details. 
All  other  zones  should  be  subordinate  to  this  area. 

Rule  lie.  Two  periods  of  historic  ornament  should  not  be  introduced  into 
the  same  design. 

Rule  Uf.      Repulsive  forms  should  not  be  introduced  into  surface  enrichment. 


Application  of  Color  to  Large  Areas 

values 

Rule  12a.  An  average  wood  staifi  is  to  be  retained  betucen  the  values  middle 
and  low  dark. 

Rule  I'ilj.  An  average  ivall  hue  is  to  be  retained  between  the  values  light 
and  middle. 

Rule  12c.  An  average  ceiling  hue  is  to  be  retained  between  the  values  irhite 
{minus)  and  light. 

RuU-  1"2(1.  The  relation  betiveen  the  side  walls  and  furniture,  trim,  etc., 
should  be  retained  rrithin  the  range  of  four  values  or  less,  as  low  light  and  dark. 

Rule  12e.  The  relation  between  the  side  trails  and  ceiling  should  be  within 
the  range  of  three  rahies  or  less,  as  high  light  and  lou'  light. 


[  22^2  ] 


HUES 

Rule  1^2f.  Color  schemes  for  wood  work  and  side  trails  should  preferably 
be  selected  from  one  of  the  following  groupings:  analogous,  contrasted,  or  dominant 
arrangements  of  hues.  Analogous  grouping  is  preferable  lehere  variety  of  hue  is 
desirable. 

Rule  l'-2g.  Ceilings  should  be  colored  by  a  lighter  tint  of  the  side  tcalls  or  by  a 
lighter  tint  of  an  analogous  hue. 

CHROMA 

Rule  l^h.  Stains  are  usually  not  reduced  to  below  three-fourths  chromatic 
intensity.  Nearly  gray  side  walls,  hotvever,  call  for  a  reduction  to  one-fourth 
intensity. 

Rule  Vl\.  J]'all  colors  are  usually  reduced  to  three-fourths  chroma  to  a  mini- 
mum reduction  of  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma. 

Rule  12j.  Ceilings  should  usually  be  reduced  in  chroma  to  three-fourths 
intensity,  icith  slightly  less  than  one-fourth  chroma  as  a  minimum  reduction. 


DISTRIBUTION 

Rule  12k.  Proportionate  distribution  of  hue,  value,  and  chroma  in  surface 
enrichment  calls  for  a  small  area,  high  in  chroma,  and  contrasting  in  value  to  the 
rest  of  the  surface,  but  harmonizing  with  it.  This  is  usually  located  in  the  area  of 
concentration.  The  larger  areas  are  to  be  sufficiently  reduced  in  chroma  and  value 
to  form  slight  contrast  with  the  background. 


HUES    FOR    SMALL    OBJECTS 

Rule  121.  One  hue,  or  a  group  of  analogous  hues  should  dominate  all  color 
schemes.  The  point  of  concentration  may  be  emphasized  by  one  hue  related  to  the 
other  hues  by  (1)  contrasted,  {2)  dominant,  {S)  analogous,  (4)  complementary 
relations.  This  hue  should  make  slightly  stronger  value  and  chroma  contrast 
than  the  remaining  hues. 

VALUES  FOR  SMALL  OBJECTS 

Rule  12m.  An  extreme  range  of  fire  values  is  generally  sufficient  to  supply 
contrast  to  a  design  but  still  retain  its  value  unity.  Restraint  in  the  use  of  values 
is  essential. 

CHROMA    FOR    SMALL    OBJECTS 

Rule  12n.  The  amount  of  chroma  may  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  de- 
crease in  the  decorated  area.      Exceptions  may  be  made  to  this  under   Rule  l"2o. 

Rule  12o.  Small  one  or  tiro-hued  projects  in  clay,  designed  to  be  used  as  a 
part  of  the  decorative  color  scheme  for  a  room  should  bear  a  contrasted,  dominant, 
analogous,  or  complementary  relation  to  the  side  walls  of  the  room.  The  project 
may  be  much  higher  in  chroma  than  the  side  walls. 

Rule  12p.  Correct  color  for  surface  enrichment  should  neither  apparently 
rise  above  nor  drop  beUnc  the  surface  to  irhich  it  is  applied,  but  should  stay  upon 
the  plane  of  that  surface.      Correct  value  and  chroma  range  trill  accomplish  this. 


[  223  ] 

APPENDIX 

The  following  plates  comprise  complete  courses  for  applied  art 
problems  in  thin  metal  (copper  and  silver),  and  clay.  The  problems 
are  based  upon  what  is  known  as  the  "group  system."  The  process 
forms  the  basis  for  each  group  in  each  course.  The  stated  problem 
in  each  group  is  merely  one  of  many  that  might  be  selected  which 
involves  the  process  of  the  group. 

The  design  rule  that  should  be  applied  to  each  problem  has  been 
indicated  by  its  proper  figure  and  letter  on  each  plate,  as  10a,  etc. 
The  plates  are  sequentially  arranged  in  order  of  the  difficulty  of 
the  process  and  may  be  sunnnarized  as  follows. 

Thin  Metal 

Plate  67:  Bending.     Sawing.     Riveting. 

Plate  08 :  Bending.     Soft  Soldering. 

Plate  69:  Raising.     Piercing.     Etching. 

Plate  70 :  Raising  and  Planishing. 

Plate  71 :  Bending.     Piercing.     Etching.     Hard  Soldering. 

Plate  I'i:  Hinge  Construction. 

Plate  73:  Raising.     Planishing.     Hard  Soldering. 

Plate  74:  Raising.     Planishing. 

Plate  75:  Champleve  Enamelling. 

Plate  76:  Precious  Stone  Mounting;  Pins. 

Plate  77:  Precious  Stone  Mounting;  Rings. 

Plate  78:  Precious  Stone  Mounting;  Pendants. 


Pottery 

Plate  70:  Hand  Built  Tile. 

Plate  80:  Hand  Built  Bowl,  Coil  and  Strip  Method. 

Plate  81:  Same  witli  Appendage  Added. 

Plate  8*2:  Hand  Building;  Spouts,  Lids,  Handles. 

Plate  83:  Poured  Forms  and  Mould  Making. 

Plate  84:  Shp  Painting. 

Plate  8.5:  (daze  Testini^'. 


[  224  ] 
■Applied    Arts:   TniNriETAi- 

•  Process  I  .    BENOiNiG  ,  SAwirsiCi  ,  Ris/'E.Tir^©  r     • 
F>ROBLEA\:      PAPER.  KNIFE  .    MATERIAL.     COPPER  OR.  BR. A5S 

•  5I2.E.       iVq" 


XYPE   I 


5f 


5\>   S^'''^~r\^li.rm\na\^ 


MATERIAL  .   16    G.  COPPER. 
EMRICHMENT.  PLANISHIKG 


vARIAriOri,3  -  5^ 


e- 


-e- 


TYPt    Z 


-^ 


lOoL 


l\3. 


lOX. 


r-lATERlAvL.-  le><5>     BR.A32>    OR    OOPPBR 
EMRICHr«-\eiM-r  .  PlBROir>i<Si 


MATERIAL   IZG.      COPPER.^ 
ENRICH  neNT(CHAmPLEvt) 
EMAt-iau. 


Plate  67 


[225] 


•Applied  Arts  Thim  Metal- 
•  Process  2:     BEnoiiSG  and  5oft  soldering 
Problem;    card  trav  -    riATERiAu.  ^&G  copper   or  Br2/^i3.s 

Size:  •  P  ^z*  Oq. 


-5cL-b 


EMRlCHnENT:  PIE.R.CE.P    PLATE 


N/>».R.lATlOI>Ca 


10  i. 


r  /^ 


7c- 
'03 

ISI 

lOL 


PlERCINC» 


Piercing 


tMAnELLING 


I'J.ATK  G8 


[226] 


•  Applied  Arts  Thim  Hetal- 

•PROCE563:      Raisimg  •  Piercing-     EItchimg- 
Proble-m:  Pe.m  Tray   -    Material    ^G  Copper  or  Bra55 

•  Size:    i  P   n^'^a  J  • 


l"b 


TYPE     I 


Ice 


r' 


y 


lOoL- 

loj 

llbt 


■"> 


r 


mi 


s^ 


^t^'- 


&ot- 


6< 


EnRicHHEnT  :  Piercimg 


2>oLoppUcel 


^ 


&0 


VARIATI0M5 


'6  GO 


66 


ErtRlCHriEMT  :  PlERCirtG 
REPOU5SEIN6  .    ETCHJMG 


Type   2 


Plate  69 


[  227  ] 


•  APPLIED  ART5  :  THIM    METAL  • 
PROCESS    3     :   RAisinG.    Plamishing     :  TR  AV5 
•  prosue:/^  :cRur\E>  tray  5et  -matelrial.   i<s  or  zo  g  copper 

«    SIZE.     :     TRAY      3V  7  "  BRU5H   TO   FIT   TKAY    • 

'SiyGGESTED     Problem  -  ^ERvihG  tray  • 

TYPE    I 


.zr 


:^w 


I 


Tray 
Variatiom  of  Type  I 


pierced  or 

REP0U55ED 


ELriRICHMEfiT 


4-b 


of  Enrichment 


TYPE  2 

CIRCULAR    TRAY 

5IMILAR    TO 
TYPE    I 


BRU5H 
VARIATIOM5    IM    HAMDLES 


I'latk  70 


[  2i8  ] 


'  APPLIED  ARTS  :  THiri  METAL- 
•  Process^-:  BaNDiHG.piERoiHe-ELTCHiMG-HARO  Soldeisikg 
PROBLEn:  MAPKJN    "RlMG-     MAXE.RIAL  ISOREOG  COPPER- 
TYPEI  • 


^S' 


6aL 


fc^'     C/QJ    (J^Tc) 


EMRICHriEMT  PIERCED 


VARIATION    IN  EJiRlCHriENT 
REPOUSSE.   OR.  SOLDERED  PLATE 


iy-SViii^ 


lljll.il     (lll.._ 

'i 
I       . 


a^ 


T^'PE•^•     6  b 


5b 


EMAMELLED    REP0020E 


pWQt' 


^j;M«a^ 


f 


OlAMBU, 


-f-TiMT  m 


Jif    I     Co  LOP. 

I 


7a. 


Ic 


Plate  71 


[  229  ] 


•APPUED  AR.T5  :     THIM     AAETAL-' 

•  Process  5  .     Himge    cohstructjon  • 

•  PROBUEro:   STAr^P  OR-  3-E.v^E.L_    BOX  •    HmC5E.D   CATCH  OPTIONAL. 

•  MATERIAL-  IS  OR.  20  <3   COPPER  •     E>0><  2|x2.|'x  l^"    \^\  3'x5-  "  - 


13L 


TYPE.-  I 


SOL.OERS 

SOFT    50LDE.R  :      N/ARYIMG       PARTS        OF    L.E.AD     AMD  TIM 

FOR     PEWTER  •  THE  SAME.  WITH    &1SMUTH 

BRAZIMG    SOLDER  :  EQUAL    PARTS    COPPE-R    AMD   Z.IMC 

"  "  :(SOFTER)  LARCE-R  AMOUHTOF2H  WITH  5e>AtSO  SK 

HARD  OR.  5>iL^E-R  solder:     Seven  partCS  of  silver   -  iofBRAS2> 


3 


SOLDER,      for.  EHAntLLED  PARTS".    lOZ..   SILVER  -    5dwT     COPPER  ALLO-f 


Plate  72 


[230] 


Problem 


•  Applied   Art5  :  Thim   Mltal- 
•process  6  ra/5ihg       planishing  ,  solderimg  j 
SPOON  Talmomd)  :    mater(/«».l  18 g  Copper  • 


TYPE     I 


P  H 


"Terminal 
Cnrichmanl" 


Reinforcing   "Relpoussl 


Id   / 


T" 

E.NRICHMENT     4.'b 
cL      -SoL  ETCHING 

Type  2 


<t 


ROUND 


FLAT 


Type  3    Scoops 


Bound 


^ 


Etching 


Piercing 


Piercing 


Plate  73 


[231] 


•Applied  Arts   Thin  Metal- 
process  7  :    Raising  ,  PLAMisHiriG  • 


IS 


Proble./^  :  Bowl,(Almomd)  WITH  Feet  -  Material  %g    Copper 


TYPE    I 


EET-(3  0P(  a) 
16  GAUGE 


Octagonal 


5^^ 


Type  2 


o 
o 


o 

/=1 


~~r~ 


-Aoi^ 


U5E.  OF  Dor-iiNG 
Punch 


\/AR/ATI0N5 

6f  1^       ,6a. 


JQ)L 


/OK 


One  PiEict 


ENRICHMELNT  ;  ETCHING    AND 

Repousse: 

Variations 


C) 


o 


Ax 


v^V  ^-^5c5L 

Cnrichmcnt  :    L-iMOGta    E.na/^e.l 


I'l.ATi:  71 


[  ^23^2  ] 


•Applied    Arts  :  Thim    riETAL.- 
•  Process  &     :    Ch/^mplelve    EMAr^EUL-iMo  • 
•  Problems  :  hat  Pirts  •    fobs  •  paper  KrHivEs  • 

•r^AXERJALS:    laO  COPPER  TRAM  SPARETnIT     OR- 
OPAQ.UE      ErtArnEL- 


RULE.S> 


80 


oa 


Of-IOK'  lOJ-iol- 10 m 


—  6< 


m-'- 


^ 


^- 


lOcL 

-60 


HAT  PIM5» 


,<n[v 


M-i^y 


loa  ^>^_ 


fobs:  ConMCRClAA-   fixtures    $      FOR    1 4:  AMD    r     t^l&BOM 

>OL 


Paper.  Cutter^  <f 

f="ILE_D   xo    A 
CUTTItSG  EDGE 


la 
^C3 


lOci 


7. 


c=3 


1^0* 


OR. 


6_^ 


/^i^ 


lOc 


ym 


e>c-      joa. 


oc 


ace— HM«^- 


lOh 


Q}' 


Plate  75 


[  233  1 


•APPLIED      ART5     •-      THin    ME-TAL  • 
•   PROCE5S>9:3E.ni-pRECIOU<5     STONE.  nOUMTlM©* 
EMRlCHmE.MT;   ETCHIMG  ,  PIERCIMG,  CAR^/lt^O  .     RAISI  [M  O  ,"  G  RAl  li^  .TWl  STsS    • 

PR.0I2,UE.MS-.     "PllSi  •  AAATER.\Al_       BODV.    ie<S   STE-RI-lt-iCi.  .  BE.2.El_2eG  F'irNlE 

FITTINGS  •  GERMAN         SILVER.    . 


TVPE.  •    I    ■ 

RULES  loa-b-oL-c  -f  ■g'-Ti  x-k: . 


J  ° 


e>U  I  LT  UP 


RA\5EDOR  PlERceo 


-^'J 


^ 


.5b 


:^^SQ 


8cc 


/ob 


cp^sc: 


B^^E 


SOl^^=a> 


6j 


DuiuT        L»P 


VARIATIONS  OF    "TV  Pt      I 
BROOCHES 


^^"^O 


Ofc 


TVPE    2 


>-0^^0-J 


c<o 


5/- 


T-IE.  PINS 

»-5b     O 
5b 


5/ 


D 


Tlati;  7(1 


[  234  ] 


•  Applied  ARTS  :  Thim   Hetal* 

•  Process:  lo    solderimg.  carvi is g.  stone.  Mf3unTiM6- 

•  Problem:    "Rimg   coM3TeucTioM  • 

•  MATERIAL'.  18G  STERLiriG  ■    BEZEL  ZG  G   FlKE  SILVER. 

eULES  lOcL  -b-di-  <L-f  •  g  -  ^  j  •  '^  • 


TYPE  •  Z 


TYPE.- 3 


lOK 


# 


1<M 


:j 


eO^H£ 


/oK 


mote:   leiNGS    OESlGrtEDTD 
bEWORti   BY  Vv'OMEfi    SHOULD 
liE  UGKTEIS  THAN  TXPEL-  I  • 


Plate  77 


[£35] 


1 


•  APPLIED    Arts   :     Thim  r\ETAV_* 
•  Process M   Pe.md/^mt    comstructiom  •  CHAiri  r^AKiMG. 

\//\RlOUS       RORr-IS      OF     E-MRICHMEMT  • 

•  "Problems  ■.  PErHOAM-rs.  lavalicre-s.   couL.Af^s  . 

•  material:  e>oDv  \5 to  I aG» sterling- bezels  2sgfine-  chain  ^TERUMQi 


K 


5\MPLE   PLAM 
SHOWlh4Ci   MEED 
OF  EMRICHMENT 


5cL 


5^     PlERCE-D     EHRlCHriErtT 


□X) 


S-Sc- 


/ 


^ 


LlMK    FLATTCMEX)      O 


4<x 


LlMKS         FORMED         OVER    MAHDREL 
^LOMG        3z'  THICK.  •     "RING  O    OVER, 
Sr-^ALL   KMITTIHCt   ME-EDLE-- 


Plate  78 


[  236  ] 


'^^^      /^ 


Figure  470. —  Inceptive  Axes.     Partial  Illustration  of  the  Metal  Course 


[237] 


•  Applied    Arts  •  Clay  •  Potte.rv  . 

•"ProCE.SS  I  •  MA.MD         BUILT     TILE  *  CUT    FROM  FLAT     PIECE  • 

vC/  CLEAR   GLA2.Elb)VAI^IE.O     GL^^Xt^ 
"PRoeuE.riS:    P'A^PE:^    vwE^GHT  •    AR.CH -TtUE.    -T   POT  STAND    COASTER 

RULES   9cL-llc 

TYPE.  .  \  . 
CLEAR.GLA7.E. 


TYPE  2.    IMUAY      7cc 


TYPE.  3   COLOJ^feD  MATHS 


STAINS  u  G  .  White. 

GLA-ZIE.     ^1     COLORLESS 

TYPE     ^ 


MATT     GLAZ-E.    MO-    106 
MATT  GLAiE      NO- 
U.G,  -SAGE-  GREEN 
u.G.C-oaAUT    Blue. 

U.G.  PEACOCK    Bli/e. 


7<3. 


TIN  CLAXE 
&LUE    EJiRlCHMENT 


1*LATE  79 


[  238  ] 


•Applied    Arts    :  Clav-    Pottery  • 
•  Proce.55  2:      HArjD    Building     Coil,   and    3trip 

MATT       GLA2E.     -    3TAIN     No    603    • 
'  SUBJECT    :     COISTAIMER     -     FLOWER     BOWL     -     EMRICHME.NT     RAIDED     LELAF 


EULES    9aL-  lie    • 


-4-OL 


MONMOUTH       5T0NE:WARE 
CUAY 

Variations 


.-S 


-L 


>€» 


1^^ 


b(L- 


^ 


r 


L 


h.= 


/ 


7 


i 


IV 


J 


I 


D 


^ L 


a 


1 


?■ 


M    ^Q 


^-5"e 


\    ^ 


5"e    y^'s^^ 


> 


5^ 


:^ 


1 


FROM' tCEKAvMlC  STUDIO' 


BA5E. 


Glaze:    106 

ALUMfrSA 


=^ 


.^ 


-h-5c 


/Acid 


PbO     .77 
h^  O      .11 
Ba  O      .  I  Z 


Al^03.|4 


•5,  Op    .8 


1.00 

sua-siLiciou3    Matt  glaze,   maturing    at 

l070''C(iq58*'F)  OR    CONE   .04 
R  O  1:1 


Plate  80 


[239] 


Aa. 


•Applied    Arts    :    Pottery* 
♦  Process  3  :  hand    Building  ,  spout,   handle  ,  lid  . 
Problems    :  Pourer    (Creamer)    comtainelr  CSugar) 

ENRICHMELNT    :       INCISE-D         BORDER    * 

R.ULE.5  9oL-llc 

typ^  I  Type  2 

4^      9c     9b        6<i, 


r^ 

6/ 


4-"b 


:^^§S^\^^::^\^/^^ 


Base. 


GLAZE5I 
STAIN  e>4-o 

ALUMINA 


ACfO 


Pb 

O 

.5Z 

Co 

O 

.2 

2n 

o 

.la 

^^a 

o 

.16 

1 


l.oo 


AL,03     -3^ 


5  I   O^     I.  68 


3E^Qui  siLicious    Clear   glaze    maturing  at  io7o<»c  (isss'F) 

GOMEL  ,04- 
TIN    ENAMEL 
GLAZE  SQL- 


BASE 

PBO  ;^6 

CAO  .Z9 


ZnO 


.09 


)  oo 


ALUMINA 


AL2_03  ise 


ACJD 


SI  0-,   169 


•'-'  »  2  1  7 

BisiLiClOUS     OP/\QUE.    GLAZLE     MATURING   AT    lOTO'C  (I055*F^ 


Tlatk  si 


[  240  ] 


•Applie-D    Art5  :  Clay  Potteiry   - 
•  PROCC5-5  3  :    Hamd    Buildimg;  Spout,  Handle:,  Lid 

CLELAR    Glaze:   • 
Subject  ;   Pourer  :  Tea  Pot   :    Rattan  or    Re.e.d  4-lArsoLE. 

/^ 
RULE    9cx 


AaC 


type:  3 


GLAZE-51  • 
STAIN  640  • 
Ba5E  ALUMiriA  Acid 

PbO     .52 
CaO    .2. 
Zn  O    .  I  a 
Ka  O    .16 

MONOSILICJOUS     CLCAR    GLAZE    AXATURIMG     AT 

I070»C  (iq5"8"FJ    OR  CONE   .04 

R  o     I  :  i 


Al^O^  .3S 


Sto^   nz 


Plate  82 


[  241  ] 


r 


•Applied    Arts:   Pottery. 
-   PROCE^J    4-  ■    Poured    Form5    ■   Two    and    three.  Piece    Mouuds 

CLEAR     GLAZ-E:    • 

•subject:  containelr  •    cup  cchinese)  Einrichmeist- Imitial  • 

TYPE.  I 


matrix    drawing 
one  -eighth   added    for 


'i- 


1 


POTTER"5  Drawing 


e»OTTOn    AOOED 

e)\  HMD 


* 


o 


o 


GLAZE  51 
ALUMINA 


Alg  Oj      .36 


BASE 
Pb  O    .52 
Co  O      Z 
Zn  O   .12. 
H^O     .16 

SESQU  I      5II-ICIOU.5     CLEAR    &LA:?E.     MyATURING     AT 

I070°C  C  I956*f;   or    CONE    .04- 

R  O    2:3 


ACID 


51  O^    l^Z 


Plate  83 


[  24'-2 


•Applied   Arts  :  Pottery- 

•  Process  3"  :  Slip  Paimting  (.umder  glaze  decoration) 

•  Problem  :    Tile   or  other   flat  or  round    form* 

•  Material:  clay,  U.G.   Colors,  Clear  glaze  • 

TYPE    I. 


GLAZE  51  CCi-EARj 

Palette 

FOR     WHITE    glaze:           | 

COUORS 

IQ 

1 

Q 
+-■ 

e- 

O 
O 

c 

1 

S3 

a 

1 

c 
o 

O 

1 

c 
o 

§ 
'J 

_5j 

"a. 

0 

o 

>- 

Wkifp  Slip 

96 

<70 

<?0 

q4 

<?o 

<?fl 

90 

QO 

90 

90 

90 

?o 

Cobalt 

-* 

/ 

U.&.t^nQtue 

J" 

2. 

RpococAc 

S 

z 

Chrome  CfoPT 

6 

Z 

French  Giffpi  1 

2 

a 

Chcc  B>-onrn 

(0 

Golden  bro'Kn 

lO 

Oronif^ 

10 

YcUOw 

to 

Cyimaon 

JO 

9 

Lilac 

lO 

PoorlGrO'f 

lO 

NOTE.  : 

THICKNESS     OF    ALL 
TlLES  x"     FOOT^W/DE 
opprox:imatelv|  ^'    deep. 

GLAZE  5-/  STAIM  603 


PALETTE     FOR     GREEN    GLAZE 

Colors 

0 

o 

3 

o 

Si 

o 

«> 

o- 
C 

o 

V 

O 

i 

5 

^ 

0 

c 

\ 

VD 

5 

c 
\ 

1 

o 

^2 

Whire  S\fp 

90 

90 

94 

90 

90 

90 

90 

90 

<75 

94 

?5- 

^eacot-H  Blue 

6 

J 

2 

4 

ClarerBrotun 

4 

1  0 

Mart  &\ue 

S 

^ 

Z 

Orxjnqe 

fo 

YcMow 

10 

French  Green 

(0 

J 

? 

Ori</e  Chrome 

10 

4 

•  Free  balahce  •    cf 

'COMPOSITION"    t5"f   DOW 


Plate  84 


[243] 


•Applied    Arts  :     pottery* 
"•  PROCE.3S  6   :  Glaze  testing  • 
•  Problems:    various    poured    forms  :  tests  to   be.   marked    »n 

U.G.  BLACK    AS     follows    -  CLE.AR    l-9<?,    MATTIOO-iqq,     FRITTS    200-29?. 
TIN  ENAMEL   300-39<7  ,     REDUCTION   -4-00- 4 <?<T,     CRYSTALLINE  3-00-3"99, 
5TA/NS  600-  6<?<J  STUDENTS'    INITIALS      UNDER    GLAZE     NUMBER.* 

20I-633 
C-  E.T- 


/ 


V 


\ 


12-^ 


Clear -f- Nitrate. 


MATT 


FRITT 


I 1 


Crystalliine 


TIM 


SGRAFFITO 


I'l.ATK  S.> 


[2U 


Figure  471. —  Results  of  the  Pottery  Course 


Figure  471  shows  the  actual  results  produced  by  the  preceding 
course.  The  process  to  which  the  individual  pieces  belong  is 
indicated  by  the  small  figure  placed  on  the  table  and  in  front 
of  the  ware.  The  preceding  sheets  should  be  regarded  in  the  light 
of  suggestions  for  original  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
Tliey  merely  suggest  technical  guidance,  in  order  that  his  progress 
may  be  sequential  and  fitted  to  his  increasing  skill. 

The  glazes  are  stated  in  the  terms  of  the  ceramist  with  the 
proportions  of  })ase,  alumina,  and  acid  content  of  each  glaze 
clearly  stated.  By  referring  to  the  textbooks  mentioned  in  the 
preface,  these  glazes  may  be  developed  into  the  potter's  formulae. 

In  both  metal  and  pottery  courses,  two  or  more  types  are 
frequently  represented  upon  one  plate.  These  types  will  allow 
the  teacher  to  assign  a  more  difficult  problem  to  the  student 
with  some  previous  experience. 


INDEX 


PAGE 


Accenting  bands  in  wood 105      Chroma 

Accentuation  of  functional  parts...      79      Chromatic  intensity,  full.... 
Adapting  data  to  material 1^27      Clay,  coloring  for  underglaze. 


Clay,  decorative  processes 

Clay,  incising 

Clay,  inlay 

Clay,  introduction  of  pigments. 

Clay,  modeling 

Clay,  piercing 

Clay,  slij)  painting 


Analogous  hues '203 

Analysis,  intelligent 7 

Andiron  design 53 

Aniline  wood  dyes 199 

Ajjpendage  design 43-49 

Ai)pendage,  u.se  of 43 

A])pendages 43 

Ai:)pendages  and  primary  mass 45      Clay,  surface  enrichment  for. 

Api)endages,  contour  enrichment  of  88 

Ai)pendages,  design  violations 43 

Ai)pendages  in  clay 47 

A])])endages,  industrial  applications  47 
Ajipendages,   influence  of  tools  and 

materials 53 

Appendages  in  metal 51 

Api)endages  in  wood 45 

Artificial  objects 129 

Architectural,     horizontal     divisions 

for 21 

Bands,  wood  inlay 105 

Backgrounds 113,  201 

Base  metals,  enrichment  of 87 

Base    and    precious    metals,    surface 

enrichment  of 160,  1(53,  1(55,  107 

Borders   for  wood 107 

Biiildiim' 1G5 


PAGE 

.  197 

.  195 

.  151 

.  145 

.  147 

.  149 

.  149 

.  147 

.  147 

.  149 

.  145 


Candlesticks 81 

Carving 103 

('arviug  and  piercing 141 

Carving,  design  steps  for 105 

Ceilings 202  205 

Center  zone  enrichment 121 

( 'liiising 103 

Chip  carving 115 


Clay,  surface  enrichment,  structural 

classification  for 

Clay,  underglaze  |)ainting 

Color  for  clay  enrichment 

Color  for  small  areas 

Color  harmony 

Color  ])igments 

Color  pigments,  application  of 

Color  symbols 

Color  systems 

Commercial  pottery 

Comi)lementary  hues 

Conservative  use  of  ornament 

Contrasted  hues 

Containers 

Continuity   and  contrast 

Contour    enriciiment,     influence     of 

materials 

Contour     enrichment,     methods     of 

varying 

Contour  enrichment  of  clay,  need  of 
Contour  eiuichment,  evolution  of.  . 
Contour  enrichment,  j)urpo.se  of.  .  .  . 
Contour    enrichment,    requirements 

of 

Contour  enrichment,  .systematic  de- 

\'elopment  of 


151 
151 
209 
210 
201 
194 
194 
198 
194 
158 
214 
101 
203 
HI 
63 

65 

70 

77 
65 
59 

59 

81 


245 


[  ^246 


PAGE 

Contour  versus  surface  enricliment .  185 

Corners,  contour  enrichment  of 88 

Correlation,  ideal 11 

Covers,  design  for 49 

Criticism,  clear 7 

Criticism,  non-technical 7 

Curve  of  beauty 91 

Curve  of  force 61 

Curve  of  force,  approximate 61 

Curves  for  contour  enrichment 59 

Curves,  grouping  of 63 

Curves  of  extravagance 73 

Dependent  surface  enrichment 167 

Details,  contour  enrichment  of 93 

Design  evolution,  major  divisions. .  .  9 

Design  evolution,  steps  in 11 

Design,  preliminary  thought 17 

Dominant  hue 204 

Dynamic  curves  and  areas Ill 

Edges,  contour  enrichment  of 87 

Elements 157 

Enameling 163,  212,  213,  215 

Enrichment  for  small  metal  areas.  .  179 

Enrichment,  need  and  value  of 57 

Enrichment  of  large  metal  areas.  179,  183 

Enrichment,  types  of 57 

Essentials    of    good    surface    enrich- 
ment   179 

Exposures 206,  207 

Flat  surfaces  in  base  and  precious 

metal 185 

Fobs,  design  of 169 

Four  vertical  minor  divisions 139 

Free  balance 129 

Free  enrichment 121 

Free  minor  division  treatment 141 

Free  ornament 117 

Freehand  curves 30,  51,  63 

Full  size  drawing,  value  of 23 

Functional  parts,  enrichment  of .  .  .  .  88 


PAGE 

Glazes  for  pottery 149 

Glazes  related  to  interior  decoration  214 

Glazes,  stains  for 209 

Greek  scroll 93 

Handles,  design  for 49 

Harmonious  color,  need  of 194 

Harmony  of  color 210 

High  cylindrical  forms  in  clay 157 

High  cylindrical  forms  in  metal  ....    191 

Historic  ornament  in  hardware 186 

Horizontal  and  vertical  minor  divi- 
sions     137 

Horizontal     divisions,     architectural 

precedent 25 

Horizontal     divisions,     nature     and 

need  of 19 

Horizontal    divisions,    steps    in    de- 
signing       21 

Horizontal  minor  divisions 139 

Hue  and  hue  rectangles 195 

Hue  groupings 203 

Industrial  problems,  requirements  of       9 

Inceptive  axes 107,  121,  161 

Inceptive  axes  for  marginal  enrich- 
ment     119 

Inlaying 101-103 

Intermediate     points,     contour     en- 
richment of 89 

Ionic  volute 91 

Leading  lines,  curved 108 

Links 45 

Links,  contour  enrichment  of 93 

Low  cylindrical  forms  in  clay 157 

Low  cylindrical  forms  in  metal 187 

Major  design  division,  first 9 

Major  design  division,  second 9 

Major  design  division,  third 11 

Marginal  zone  enrichment 118 

Material,  adapting  data  to 127 

Material,  economy  of 161 


[  247  ] 


PAGE 

Material,  relation  to  surface  enrich- 
ment   101 

Metallic  oxides '-210 

Methods,  architectural  design 13 

Methods,  industrial  design 13 

Minor  details 141 

Minor  subdivisions  in  wood 133 

Moorish  ornament 107 

Mouldings 61 

One  vertical  division 35 

Outlines,  free  and  dependent 87,  91 

(See  Contours.) 

Oxidation    213 

Panels 117,  123,  125,  127,  129 

Panel  design,  steps  in 125 

Parts  differing  in  function 77 

Pendants  and  chains,  design  of . .  .  .  173 

Pierced  enrichment 123 

Pigment  table 195 

Pigments,  wall  and  ceiling 205 

Pins  and  brooches,  design  of 167 

Point  of  concentration 115,  161 

Point  of  concentration  for  marginal 

enrichment 119 

Porcelain  painting 151 

Pourers 81 

Precious    metals,    processes    of    en- 
richment  161,  163,  165,  169 

Primary  hues 198 

Primary  masses 13 

Primary  mass,  drawing  of 15 

Primary  mass,  divisions  of 19 

Primary  masses,  vertical   and    hori- 
zontal   15 

Primary  masses,  jjroportions  of 15 

Proportionate  distribution 210 


Ratios,  unsatisfactory 17 

Rectangular  panels 127 

Rings,  design  of 169 


PAGE 

Sequential  progression 135 

Service,  influence  of 9,  13,  15 

Sets,  designing  of 83 

Shades 197 

Shallow  circular  forms  in  clay 155 

Shallow  circular  forms  in  metal 187 

Side  walls 202-205 

Silver,  color  for 215 

Silver,  contour  enrichment  of 93 

Silver,  free  outline  enrichment  97 

Silver,   motives   for  contour  enrich- 
ment    97 

Spouts,  design  of 49 

Square    and    rectangular    areas    in 

clay 153 

Square  panels 125 

Standard  hues 195 

Standard  hues,  locating 196 

Stones,  cutting 95 

Stones,  relation  to  contour 95 

Stones,  relation  to  metal 173 

Structural  forms,  classification 160 

Structural    forms,    classification    for 

clay  surface  enrichment 151 

Structural  reinforcement 118 

Surface  design  evolution 180 

Surface     enrichment,     nature     and 

need  of 99 

Surfaces,  when  and  where  to  enrich  99 

Tangential  junctions 51,  93 

Technical  processes  for  metal 163 

Technical  rendering 161 

Terminals,  contour  enrichment  of.  89-91 

Three  horizontal  divisions 29 

Three  horizontal  divisions  in  clay...  30 

Three  horizontal  divisions  in  metal.  30 

Three  horizontal  divisions  in  wood.  29 

Three  vertical  (li\isions 37 

Three  vertical  divisions  in  clay 39 

Three  vertical  (li\isions  in  metal....  41 

Three  vertical  divisions  in  wood. ...  39 


[  ^2-48  ] 


PAGE 

Tints 196 

Transitional  types  in  fnrniture 139 

Two  horizontal  divisions 25 

Two  horizontal  divisions  in  clay..  .  .  27 

Two  horizontal  divisions  in  metal.  .  27 

Two  horizontal  divisions  in  wood. .  .  25 

Two  vertical  divisions 35 

Two  vertical  divisions  in  clay 37 

Two  vertical  divisions  in  metal 37 

Two  vertical  divisions  in  wood 35 

Unit    of    measurement    for    vertical 

curves 79 

Unity 29 

Unity  in  clay  design  curves 77 

Value  lines 196 

Varied  panels 129 

Vertical  divisions,  architectural  pre- 
cedent   33 

Vertical  divisions,  more  than  three.  41 


PAGE 

Vertical  divisions,  nature  and  need.  33 
Vertical     and     horizontal     division 

evolution 40 

Vertical    sections    and    their    minor 

divisions 133-135 

Vocabulary,  designer's 105 

Walls  and  ceilings 203-204 

Walls  and  wood  work 202-203 

Warm  and  cold  colors 198 

Wood  finishes,  opaque 206 

Wood,    methods    of   surface   enrich- 
ment     101 

Wood  stains 198 

Wood  stains,  chroma  range 205 

Wood  stain  mixing 199,  200 

Wood  stain  rendering 195 

Wood  stains,  value  range 201 

Wrought  iron  enrichment 91 

Zones  of  enrichment.  . , 118 


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